United States Air Force: Difference between revisions

Revision as of 15:11, 12 May 2008

Search and rescue

The National Search and Rescue Plan designates the United States Coast Guard as the federal agency responsible for maritime search-and-rescue (SAR) operations, and the United States Air Force as the federal agency responsible for inland SAR. Both agencies maintain Rescue Coordination Centers to coordinate this effort.[2]

U.S. Air Force Rescue Coordination Center

History

For more information, see: U.S. Air Force, history.

The United States Air Force became a separate military service on September 18 1947, with the implementation of the National Security Act of 1947.^[6] The Act created the United States Department of Defense, which was composed of three branches, the Army, Navy and a newly-created Air Force.^[7] Prior to 1947, the responsibility for military aviation was divided between the Army (for land-based operations) and the Navy, for sea-based operations from aircraft carrier and amphibious aircraft. The Army created the first antecedent of the Air Force in 1907, which through a succession of changes of organization, titles, and missions advanced toward eventual separation 40 years later. The predecessor organizations of today's U.S. Air Force are:

Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps (1907 to 1914)
Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps (1914 to 1918)
Division of Military Aeronautics (1918)
U.S. Army Air Service (1918 to 1926)
U.S. Army Air Corps (1926 to 1941) and
U.S. Army Air Forces (AAF) (1941 to 1947)

Wars

The Air Force has been involved in many wars, conflicts, and operations since its conception; these include:

World War I^[8] [Aviation Section, US Army Signal Corps]
World War II, air war(Army Air Forces, AAF)
The Cold War
The Korean War
The Vietnam War
Operation Eagle Claw
Operation Urgent Fury
The United States invasion of Panama
Operation Eldorado Canyon
The Gulf War
Operation Northern Watch
Operation Southern Watch
The Kosovo War
Operation Enduring Freedom
Operation Iraqi Freedom

Humanitarian operations

The U.S. Air Force has taken part in numerous humanitarian operations. Some of the more major ones include the following:^[9]

Berlin Airlift (Operation Vittles), 1948-1949
Operation Safe Haven, 1956-1957
Operations Babylift, New Life, Frequent Wind, and New Arrivals, 1975
Operation Provide Comfort, 1991
Operation Sea Angel, 1991
Operation Provide Hope, 1992-1993

Administrative organization

For more information, see: Organizational structure and hierarchy of the United States Air Force.

The Air Force is one of three service departments, and is managed by the (civilian) Department of the Air Force. Guidance is provided by the Secretary of the Air Force(SECAF) and the Secretary's staff and advisors. The military leadership is the Air Staff, lead by the Chief of Staff.

USAF direct subordinate commands and units are the Field Operating Agency (FOA), Direct Reporting Unit (DRU), and the currently unused Separate Operating Agency.

The Major Command (MAJCOM) is the superior hierarchical level of command. The Numbered Air Force (NAF) is a level of command directly under the MAJCOM, followed by Operational Command (now unused), Air Division (also now unused), Wing, Group, Squadron, and Flight.

Operational organization

The above organizational structure is responsible for the peacetime Organization, Equipping, and Training of aerospace units for operational missions. When required to support operational missions, the National Command Authority directs a Change in Operational Control (CHOP) of these units from their peacetime alignment to a geographic or functional Unified Combatant Command (CCDR). In the case of AFSPC, AFSOC, PACAF, and USAFE units, forces are normally employed in-place under their existing CCDR. Likewise, AMC forces operating in support roles retain their componency to USTRANSCOM unless chopped to a Regional CCDR.

See air warfare planning for a general view of air warfare doctrine and missions.

Aerospace Expeditionary Task Force

CHOPPED units are referred to as "forces". The top-level structure of these forces is the Air and Space Expeditionary Task Force (AETF). The AETF is the Air Force presentation of forces to a CCDR for the employment of Air Power. Each CCDR is supported by a standing Component Numbered Air Force (C-NAF) to provide planning and execution of aerospace forces in support of CCDR requirements. Each C-NAF consists of a Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) and AFFOR/A-staff, and an Air Operations Center (AOC). As needed to support multiple Joint Force Commanders (JFC) in the COCOM's Area of Responsibility (AOR), the C-NAF may deploy Air Component Coordinate Elements (ACCE) to liaise with the JFC. If the Air Force possesses the most strategic air assets in a JFC's area of operations, the COMAFFOR will also serve as the Joint Forces Air Component Commander (JFACC).

Commander, Air Force Forces

The Commander, Air Force Forces (COMAFFOR) is the senior Air Force officer responsible for the employment of Air Power in support of JFC objectives. The COMAFFOR has a special staff and an A-Staff to ensure assigned or attached forces are properly organized, equipped, and trained to support the operational mission.

Air Operations Center

The Air Operations Center (AOC) is the JFACC's Command and Control (C²) center. This center is responsible for planning and executing air power missions in support of JFC objectives.

Air Expeditionary Wings/Groups/Squadrons

The AETF generates air power to support COCOM objectives from Air Expeditionary Wings (AEW) or Air Expeditionary Groups (AEG). These units are responsible for receiving combat forces from Air Force MAJCOMs, preparing these forces for operational missions, launching and recovering these forces, and eventually returning forces to the MAJCOMs. Theater Air Control Systems control employment of forces during these missions.

Vocations

The vast majority of Air Force members remain on the ground. There are hundreds of support positions which are necessary to the success of a mission.

The classification of an Air Force job is the Air Force Specialty Code (AFSC). They range from flight combat operations such as a gunner, to working in a dining facility to ensure that members are properly fed. There are many different jobs in fields such as computer specialties, mechanic specialties, enlisted aircrew, medical specialties, civil engineering, public affairs, hospitality, law, drug counseling, mail operations, security forces, and search and rescue specialties.

Perhaps the most dangerous Air Force jobs are Pararescue, Combat Control, Combat Weather and Tactical Air Control Party, who deploy with infantry and special operations units who rescue downed or isolated personnel, call in air strikes and set up landing zones in forward locations. Most of these are enlisted positions.

Nearly all enlisted jobs are "entry level," meaning that the Air Force provides all training. Some enlistees are able to choose a particular job, or at least a field before actually joining, while others are assigned an AFSC at Basic Training. After Basic Military Training, new Air Force members attend a technical training school where they learn their particular AFSC. Second Air Force, a part of Air Education and Training Command is responsible for nearly all technical training.

Training programs vary in length; for example, 3M0X1 (Services) has 31 days of tech school training, while 1C2X1 (Combat Control) is 35 weeks long with 10 separate courses. 1N3X4 (Cryptologic Linguist) and 1A8X1 (Airborne Linguist) requires a language course ranging from 23 to 63 weeks, and a 4 to 5 month course. Some AFSC's have even longer training.

Aircraft

Boeing B-52 strategic bomber taking off

The United States Air Force has over 7,500 aircraft commissioned as of 2004. Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method.

Historic aircraft

P-47, Thunderbolt, WW2 fighter
P-51, Mustang, WW2 fighter
B-17, WW2 heavy bomber
B-29, WW2 heavy bomber
B-52

Current aircraft of the USAF:

Boeing T-43
TC-18E
TC-135S/W
TE-8A
TG-3A
TG-4A
TG-7A
TG-9A
TG-10B/C/D
TG-11A
TG-15A/B
UH-1N Iroquois
U-2R/S Dragon Lady
UC-26C
UV-18A/B Twin Otter
UV-20A Chiricua
CV-22B Osprey
U-28A
WC-135C/W

Culture

Uniforms

For more information, see: United States Air Force uniform.

United States Air Force personnel wear uniforms which are distinct from those of the other branches of the United States Armed Forces. The current uniform is an olive drab/black/brown and tan combination called the Battle Dress Uniform (BDU). Members deployed to an AOR wear a variation of the BDU, tan/brown and black in color, called the Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU). A new uniform called the Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) is currently being distributed some bases, and in a memo from HQ AFPC at Randolph AFB dated September 2007, will be distributed to basic trainees in their clothing issue starting October 2007. The ABU is already authorized for wear, and is scheduled to completely replace the BDU and DCU by November 2011.

Grade Structure and Insignias

The standard USAF uniform is also decorated with an insignia to designate rank. USAF rank is divided between enlisted airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from "airman basic" to the commissioned rank of general. Promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval. Promotions among enlisted men and non-commissioned officers rankings are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons. Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five (only in war-time) stars.

For cadet rank at the U.S. Air Force Academy, see United States Air Force Academy Cadet Insignia.

Notes

↑ 80 P.L. 235, 61 Stat. 495 (1947); Air Force Link, (2006)Factsheets: The U.S. Air Force. Retrieved April 7, 2006.
↑ ^2.0 ^2.1 2007 USAF Almanac: USAF Personnel Strength. AIR FORCE Magazine. Retrieved on 4 May, 2007.
↑ Air Force Print News, (2006). Force shaping necessary for AF budgetary management. Retrieved June 8, 2006.
↑ 2006 USAF Almanac: USAF Personnel Strength. AIR FORCE Magazine. Retrieved on 20 Jan, 2007.
↑ Air Force Link, (2005). Air Force releases new mission statement. Retrieved December 8, 2005.
↑ U.S. Intelligence Community (October 2004). National Security Act of 1947. Retrieved April 14 2006.
↑ U.S. Department of State(2006). National Security Act of 1947. Retrieved April 14 2006.
↑ Air Force Pamphlet 36-2241 (1 July 2007). [1].
↑ The primary source for the humanitarian operations of the USAF is the United States Air Force Supervisory Examination Study Guide (2005)

Bibliography

Bergerud, Eric M. Fire in the Sky: The Air War in the South Pacific, (2000) online edition
Boyne, Walter J. Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the U.S. Air Force, 1947-2007 (2007), popular excerpt and text search
Buckley, John. Air Power in the Age of Total War (1999) excerpt and text search
Budiansky, Stephen. Air Power: The Men, Machines, and Ideas That Revolutionized War, from Kitty Hawk to Iraq (2005) excerpt and text search
Clodfelter, Mark. The Limits of Air Power: The American Bombing of North Vietnam (2006) online edition
Correll, John T. The Air Force and the Cold War (2002), short official history of USAF online
Correll, John T. "The AEF in Peace and War." Air Force Magazine 85:24-31 July 2002] Aerospace Expeditionary Forces were invented in the 1990s online
Daso, Dik, ed. U.S. Air Force: A Complete History (2006), 640pp; large format, illustrated with 1500 photos excerpt and text search
Futrell, Robert F. Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine: A History of Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force, 1907-1984 (2 vols., Air University) vol 1, vol 2 comprehensive history of doctrine
Futrell, Robert F. The United States Air Force in Korea; 1950–1953 (1983).
Goldberg, Alfred. A History of the United States Air Force, 1907-1957 (ISBN 0-405-03763-5) (1972)
Kropf, Maj Roger F. "The US Air Force in Korea: Problems That Hindered the Effectiveness of Air Power," Airpower Journal (spr 1990) [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/3spr90.html online
Gross, Charles Joseph. American Military Aviation: The Indispensable Arm (2005)
Johnson, Herbert A. Wingless Eagle: U.S. Army Aviation through World War I. (2001) online edition
Lorell, Mark. The U.S. Combat Aircraft Industry, 1909-2000: Structure, Competition, Innovation (Rand, 2003) online edition
Mets, David R. and William P. Head. Plotting a True Course: Reflections on USAF Strategic Attack Theory and Doctrine: The Post World War II Experience, (2003) online edition
Mets, David R. Master of Airpower: General Carl A. Spaatz, (1998) online edition
Sherry, Michael S. The Rise of American Air Power: The Creation of Armageddon (1989), 435pp; history of ideas excerpt and text search
Tilford Jr. Earl H. Crosswinds: The Air Force's Setup in Vietnam (1993) online edition
United States Air Force: History and Guide to Resources (ISBN 1-4116-3638-4)
Air Force official histories (mostly pamphlets)

World War II

see World War II, air war/Bibliography

[1] 80 P.L. 235, 61 Stat. 495 (1947); Air Force Link, (2006)Factsheets: The U.S. Air Force. Retrieved April 7, 2006.

[USAFsize-2] 2.0 ^2.1 2007 USAF Almanac: USAF Personnel Strength. AIR FORCE Magazine. Retrieved on 4 May, 2007.

[3] Air Force Print News, (2006). Force shaping necessary for AF budgetary management. Retrieved June 8, 2006.

[downsize-4] 2006 USAF Almanac: USAF Personnel Strength. AIR FORCE Magazine. Retrieved on 20 Jan, 2007.

[5] Air Force Link, (2005). Air Force releases new mission statement. Retrieved December 8, 2005.

[6] U.S. Intelligence Community (October 2004). National Security Act of 1947. Retrieved April 14 2006.

[7] U.S. Department of State(2006). National Security Act of 1947. Retrieved April 14 2006.

[8] Air Force Pamphlet 36-2241 (1 July 2007). [1].

[9] The primary source for the humanitarian operations of the USAF is the United States Air Force Supervisory Examination Study Guide (2005)

[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

@@ Line 19: / Line 19: @@
 |}
-Not all of the United States' military combat aircraft are operated by the USAF.  The [[United States Army]] operates its own helicopters, mostly for support of ground combatants; it as well maintains a small fleet of fixed wing aircraft (mostly [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicles]]). The [[United States Navy|Navy]] is responsible for the aircraft operating on its [[aircraft carrier]]s and [[Naval air station]]s, and the [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] operates its own combat and transport aircraft. The [[United States Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] also maintains transport and search-and-rescue aircraft, which may be used in a combat and law enforcement role. All branches of the U.S. military operate helicopters.
+All the services operate aircraft and helicopters.
 The Department of the Air Force is headed by the civilian [[United States Secretary of the Air Force|Secretary of the Air Force]] who heads administrative affairs. The Department of the Air Force is a division of the [[United States Department of Defense]] which is headed by the [[United States Secretary of Defense]]. The highest ranking military officer in the department is the [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force|Chief of Staff of the Air Force]].
-==Mission==
-. According to the [[National Security Act of 1947]] (61 Stat. 502) which created the Air Force:
-<blockquote>
-''In general the United States Air Force shall include [[aviation]] forces both [[combat]] and service not otherwise assigned. It shall be organized, trained, and equipped primarily for prompt and sustained offensive and defensive air operations. The Air Force shall be responsible for the preparation of the air forces necessary for the effective prosecution of war except as otherwise assigned and, in accordance with integrated joint mobilization plans, for the expansion of the peacetime components of the Air Force to meet the needs of war.''
-</blockquote>
-. §8062 of Title 10 US Code ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/html/uscode10/usc_sec_10_00008062----000-.html 10 USC 8062]) defines the purpose of the Air Force as:
-*to preserve the peace and security, and provide for the defense, of the United States, the Territories, Commonwealths, and possessions, and any areas occupied by the United States;
-*to support national policy;
-*to implement national objectives;
-*to overcome any nations responsible for aggressive acts that imperil the peace and security of the United States.
 {{Infobox Military Unit
 |unit_name= United States Air Force
@@ Line 168: / Line 157: @@
 ==Aircraft==
-{{main|List of military aircraft of the United States}}
+[[Image:b52.climbout.arp.jpg|thumb|right|[[B-52|Boeing B-52]] strategic bomber taking off]]
-[[Image:b52.climbout.arp.jpg|thumb|right|[[B-52 Stratofortress|Boeing B-52]] strategic bomber taking off]]
-The United States Air Force has over 7,500 aircraft commissioned as of 2004. Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method. For more complete information on the workings of this system, refer to [[United States Department of Defense Aerospace Vehicle Designations]].
+The United States Air Force has over 7,500 aircraft commissioned as of 2004. Until 1962, the Army and Air Force maintained one system of aircraft naming, while the U.S. Navy maintained a separate system. In 1962, these were unified into a single system heavily reflecting the Army/Air Force method.
 ===Historic aircraft===
@@ Line 271: / Line 259: @@
 United States Air Force personnel wear uniforms which are distinct from those of the other branches of the United States Armed Forces. The current uniform is an olive drab/black/brown and tan combination called the [[Battle Dress Uniform]] (BDU). Members deployed to an AOR wear a variation of the BDU, tan/brown and black in color, called the Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU). A new uniform called the Airman Battle Uniform (ABU) is currently being distributed some bases, and in a memo from HQ AFPC at Randolph AFB dated September 2007, will be distributed to basic trainees in their clothing issue starting October 2007. The ABU is already authorized for wear, and is scheduled to completely replace the BDU and DCU by November 2011.
-===Awards and badges===
-In addition to basic uniform clothing, [[Badges of the United States Air Force|various badges]] are used by the USAF to indicate a job assignment or qualification-level for a given assignment. Badges can also be used as merit-based or service-based [[Awards and decorations of the United States Air Force|awards]]. Over time, [[Obsolete badges of the United States military|various badges]] have been discontinued and are no longer distributed.
 ===Grade Structure and Insignias===
-{{seealso|United States Air Force officer rank insignia}}
-{{seealso|United States Air Force enlisted rank insignia}}
 The standard USAF uniform is also decorated with an insignia to designate rank. USAF rank is divided between [[Enlisted rank|enlisted]] airmen, non-commissioned officers, and commissioned officers, and ranges from "airman basic" to the commissioned rank of [[general]]. Promotions are granted based on a combination of test scores, years of experience, and selection board approval. Promotions among enlisted men and non-commissioned officers rankings are generally designated by increasing numbers of insignia chevrons. Commissioned officer rank is designated by bars, oak leaves, a silver eagle, and anywhere from one to five (only in war-time) stars.
 ''For cadet rank at the U.S. Air Force Academy, see [[United States Air Force Academy Cadet Insignia]].''
+==Notes==
-===Motto===
-The United States Air Force does not have an official motto, but there are numerous unofficial slogans such as "Nothing Comes Close" and ''Un Ab Alto'' ([[Latin language|Latin]] for "One Over All"). For many years, the U.S. Air Force used "Aim High" as its recruiting motto; more recently, they have used "Cross Into the Blue", "We've been waiting for you" and "Do Something Amazing".
-Each wing, group, or squadron usually has its own motto(s). Information and logos can usually be found on the wing, group, or squadron websites.<ref>Military-quotes.com (2006). ''[http://www.military-quotes.com/mottos/US-Air-Force.htm US Air Force Mottos]''. Retrieved 4 June 2006.</ref>
-[[Airman's Creed|The Airman's Creed]] is a statement introduced in the spring of 2007 to summarize the culture of the Air Force.
-==The USAF and UFOs==
-{{main|Project Sign}}
-{{main|Project Grudge}}
-{{main|Project Blue Book}}
-{{main|Project Twinkle}}
-In 1947, the USAF began [[Project Sign]], a study of [[unidentified flying object]]s that would be twice revived (first as [[Project Grudge]] and finally as [[Project Blue Book]]) and which would last until 1969.<ref>[http://www.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?fsID=188 Unidentified Flying Objects and Air Force Project Blue Book (USAF Fact Sheet 95-03], updated October, 2005); URL retrieved 25June 2007</ref> The USAF's institutional attitude towards UFOs would vary drastically over the years, but the Air Force remains strongly associated with at least the early years of the "flying saucer" era: the term "unidentified flying object" was coined by U.S. Air Force officer [[Edward J. Ruppelt]]. [[Project Twinkle]], mostly unrelated to other UConsistSAF UFO studies, was set up in the late 1940s to investigate the mysterious "[[green fireballs]]" which appeared over several Air Force facilities.
-==Notes and References==
 <div class="references-small">
 <references/>
 </div>
-References to U.S. Army predecessors of today's U.S. Air Force are cited under their respective articles.
-==See also==
-{{portalpar|Military of the United States|Flag of the United States.svg|65}}
-{{commons|United States Air Force}}
-{{portal|United States Air Force|Seal of the US Air Force.svg}}
-{{wikisource-author}}
-* [[Air Force Aeronautical Ratings]]
-* [[Air Force Association]]
-* [[Air Force Combat Ammunition Center]]
-* [[Air Force Medical Service]]
-* [[Air Force Knowledge Now]]
-* [[Air Force Specialty Code]]
-* [[Air National Guard]]
-* [[Aviation Nation]]
-* [[Civil Air Patrol]]
-* [[Comparative military ranks]]
-* [[List of active United States military aircraft]]
-* [[List of air forces]]
-* [[List of Famous Airmen]]
-* [[List of military aircraft of the United States]]
-* [[List of U.S. Air Force bases]]
-* [[List of Wings of the United States Air Force]]
-* [[National Museum of the United States Air Force]]
-* [[Ranks and Insignia of NATO]]
-* [[Service bands#Air Force Band|U.S. Air Force Band]]
-* [[Strategic Air Command]]
-* [[The U.S. Air Force (song)|"The U.S. Air Force"]], the official song of the USAF
-* [[United States Air Force Academy]]
-* [[U.S. Air Force Thunderbirds]]
 ==Bibliography==
@@ Line 336: / Line 275: @@
 * Budiansky, Stephen. ''Air Power: The Men, Machines, and Ideas That Revolutionized War, from Kitty Hawk to Iraq'' (2005) [http://www.amazon.com/Air-Power-Machines-Ideas-Revolutionized/dp/014303474X/ref=pd_sim_b_title_3 excerpt and text search]
 * Clodfelter, Mark. ''The Limits of Air Power: The American Bombing of North Vietnam'' (2006) [http://www.questia.com/read/112961478?title=The%20Limits%20of%20Air%20Power%3a%20%20The%20American%20Bombing%20of%20North%20Vietnam online edition]
-* [https://www.aef.org/media/reports/Coldwar.pdf John T. Correll, ''The Air Force and the Cold War'' (2002), short official history of USAF]
+* Correll, John T. ''The Air Force and the Cold War'' (2002), short official history of USAF [https://www.aef.org/media/reports/Coldwar.pdf online]
-* [http://www.afa.org/magazine/July2002/0702eaf.asp Correll, John T. "The EAF in Peace and War." ''Air Force Magazine'' 85:24-31 July 2002] on WW1
+* Correll, John T. "The AEF in Peace and War." ''Air Force Magazine'' 85:24-31 July 2002] Aerospace Expeditionary Forces were invented in the 1990s [http://www.afa.org/magazine/July2002/0702eaf.asp  online]
 * Daso, Dik, ed. ''U.S. Air Force: A Complete History'' (2006), 640pp; large format, illustrated with  1500 photos [http://www.amazon.com/Force-Lauter-Levins-Military-History/dp/0883631148/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210609110&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
 * Futrell, Robert F. ''Ideas, Concepts, Doctrine: A History of Basic Thinking in the United States Air Force, 1907-1984'' (2 vols., Air University) [http://aupress.au.af.mil/Books/Ideas_v1/Ideas_vI.pdf vol 1], [http://aupress.au.af.mil/Books/Ideas_vol2/Ideas_vol2.pdf vol 2] comprehensive history of doctrine
 * Futrell, Robert F. ''The United States Air Force in Korea; 1950–1953'' (1983).
 *  Goldberg, Alfred. ''A History of the United States Air Force, 1907-1957'' (ISBN 0-405-03763-5) (1972)
-* [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/3spr90.html Maj Roger F. Kropf, "The US Air Force in Korea: Problems That Hindered the Effectiveness of Air Power," ''Airpower Journal'' (spr 1990)]
+* Kropf, Maj Roger F. "The US Air Force in Korea: Problems That Hindered the Effectiveness of Air Power," ''Airpower Journal'' (spr 1990) [http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/apj/3spr90.html online
 * Gross, Charles Joseph. ''American Military Aviation: The Indispensable Arm'' (2005)
 * Johnson, Herbert A. ''Wingless Eagle: U.S. Army Aviation through World War I.'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/read/105863116?title=Wingless%20Eagle%3a%20%20U.S.%20Army%20Aviation%20through%20World%20War%20I online edition]