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{{subpages}}
Before you edit this article to change the name of the country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else, please read the Talk Page. This issue has been discussed at great length there, and the evidence provided indicates that the country's *legal* name is "Canada", not anything else. If you believe you have arguments or evidence to the contrary, please provide them on the Talk Page, and wait until the consensus changes before making the edit. Thank you!
{{Image|Canadian Flag.png|right|350px|National flag of Canada.}}
{{Image|Canada Map.png|right|350px|Map of Canada.}}
'''Canada''' is the world's second largest country by total area, occupying most of northern [[North America]]. Extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, Canada shares land borders with the [[United States of America]] to the south and to the northwest. Canada is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a parliamentary democracy. It was formed as a confederation of British colonies in 1867 and secured effective independence in the 1920s. With a population of 35 million spread over 10 million km², and major oil supplies, Canada is one of the most prosperous countries of the world and a magnet for immigrants. It is an active member of [[NATO]] and the [[United Nations]]. Since the 1970s a sovereignty movement in French-speaking [[Quebec]] has proposed independence for the province, but the issue is currently quiet. Liberal Justin Trudeau became the [[Prime Minister of Canada|prime minister]] in 2015; the capital is [[Ottawa]].


Please use Canadian spelling.
==History==
see [[Canada, history]]


Notice: This overview article is already too long and should serve only as an introduction for Canada. To keep this overview article concise, please consider adding information instead to one of the many "main" articles about Canada linked from this article, e.g., [[Politics of Canada]], [[Geography of Canada]], etc. Thank you.
===First Nations===
Aboriginal tradition holds that the [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|First Peoples]] inhabited parts of Canada since the dawn of time. Archaeological studies support a human presence in northern [[Yukon]] to 26,500 years ago, and in southern [[Ontario]] to 9,500 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Cinq-Mars | first = J. | year = 2001 | title = On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia | journal = The World of Elephants - International Congress, Rome | url = http://www.cq.rm.cnr.it/elephants2001/pdf/424_428.pdf | accessdate = 2006-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Wright, J.V |publisher= Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation |url=http://www.civilization.ca/archeo/hnpc/npvol04e.html |title=A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes|date=[[2001-09-27]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref>


-->{{otheruses}}
===Discovery and Exploration===
{{Infobox Country
Europeans first arrived when the [[Vikings]] settled briefly at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] circa AD 1000. The next Europeans to explore Canada's Atlantic coast included [[John Cabot]] in 1497 for [[Kingdom of England|England]] and [[Jacques Cartier]] in 1534  for [[France]]. French explorer [[Samuel de Champlain]] arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at [[Port Royal, Nova Scotia|Port Royal]] in 1605 and [[Quebec City]] in 1608. Among [[French colonization of the Americas|French colonists]] of [[New France]], ''[[Canadiens]]'' extensively settled the [[St. Lawrence River]] valley, [[Acadians]] settled the present-day [[Maritimes]], while [[Coureurs de bois|French fur traders]] and [[René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle|Catholic missionaries]] explored the [[Great Lakes]], [[Hudson Bay]] and the Mississippi watershed to [[Louisiana (New France)|Louisiana]]. The [[French and Iroquois Wars]] broke out over control of the [[fur trade]].
|native_name = Canada
|common_name = Canada
|image_flag = Flag_of_Canada.svg
|image_coat = Bigcancoat.png
|symbol_type = Coat of arms
|national_motto = [[Latin]]: ''A Mari Usque Ad Mare''<br>([[English language|English]]: "From Sea to Sea")
|national_anthem = "[[O Canada]]"<br>[[Royal anthem]]: "[[God Save the Queen]]"
|image_map = CanadaWorldMap.png
|capital = [[Ottawa]] |latd=45|latm=24|latNS=N|longd=75|longm=40|longEW=W
|name = Formal Name:Canada <br>Common Name:Canada
|largest_city = [[Toronto]]  
|official_languages = [[Canadian English|English]], [[French in Canada|French]]
|government_type = [[Federal constitutional monarchy]]  
|leader_title1 = [[Monarchy in Canada|Monarch]]
|leader_title2 = [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]]
|leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]]<br>
|leader_name1 = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]]
|leader_name2 = [[Michaëlle Jean]]
|leader_name3 = [[Stephen Harper]]
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Canada|Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = From&nbsp;the&nbsp;[[United Kingdom|UK]]
|established_event1 = [[British North America Acts|BNA Act]]
|established_event2 = [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]]
|established_event3 = [[Canada Act 1982|Canada Act]]
|established_date1 = [[July 1]] [[1867]]
|established_date2 = [[December 11]] [[1931]]
|established_date3 = [[April 17]] [[1982]]
|area = 9,984,670
|areami²= 3,854,085 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|area_rank = 2nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|percent_water = 8.92 (891,163 km²)
|population_estimate = 32,547,200 <!--2006 midyear projection using Scenario 3 (Medium variant) (http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/91-520-XIE/00105/t334_en.htm?)-->
|population_estimate_year = 2006
|population_estimate_rank = 36th
|population_census = 30,007,094
|population_census_year = 2001
|population_density = 3.2
|population_densitymi² = 8.3 <!-- Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]] -->
|population_density_rank = 219th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP = $1.105 trillion <!--IMF-->
|GDP_PPP_rank = 11th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $34,273
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 7th
|HDI_year = 2005
|HDI = 0.949
|HDI_rank = 5th
|HDI_category = <font color="#009900">high</font>
|currency = [[Canadian dollar]] ($)
|currency_code = CAD
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = -3.5 to -8
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = -2.5 to -7
|cctld = [[.ca]]
|calling_code = 1
|ISO_3166-1_alpha2 = CA
|ISO_3166-1_alpha3 = CAN
|ISO_3166-1_numeric =
|sport_code = CAN
|vehicle_code = CDN
|footnotes = }}
'''Canada''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]] {{IPA|['kʰænədə]}} in [[English language|English]] and {{IPA|[kanada]}} in [[French language|French]]) is the world's [[List of countries by area|second-largest]] country by total area, occupying most of northern [[North America]]. Extending from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the [[Pacific Ocean]] and northward into the [[Arctic Ocean]], Canada shares land borders with the [[United States]] to the south and to the northwest.


Inhabited first by [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal peoples]], Canada was founded as a union of [[British overseas territories|British colonies]], some of which had been [[French colonial empires|French colonies]]. Canada gained independence from the [[United Kingdom]] in an incremental process that began in [[Constitution Act, 1867|1867]] and ended in [[Canada Act 1982|1982]] maintaining [[Queen Elizabeth II]] as [[Head of State]].
===British settlement and takeover===
The English established fishing outposts in [[Newfoundland]] around 1610 and colonized the [[Thirteen Colonies]] to the south. A series of four [[French and Indian Wars|Intercolonial Wars]] between France and England occurred between 1689 and 1763. Mainland [[Nova Scotia]] came under British rule with the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] (1713); the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]] ceded all of [[New France]] to [[British Empire|Britain]] following the [[French and Indian War|Seven Years' War]].


Canada is a [[federation|federal]] [[constitutional monarchy]] and [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary democracy]], consisting of ten [[Provinces and territories of Canada|provinces]] and three [[Provinces and territories of Canada#Territories of Canada|territories]], and defines itself as a [[Bilingualism in Canada|bilingual]] and [[multiculturalism|multicultural]] nation; both [[Canadian English|English]] and [[French in Canada|French]] are [[official language]]s. A technologically advanced and industrialized nation, its diversified [[Economy of Canada|economy]] relies heavily on an abundance of natural resources and on trade, particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a [[Canada-United States relations|long and complex relationship]].  
The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of [[New France]] and annexed [[Cape Breton Island]] to [[Nova Scotia]]. It also restricted the language and religious rights of [[French Canadians]]. In 1769, St. John's Island (now [[Prince Edward Island]]) became a separate colony. To avert conflict in Quebec, the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774 expanded Quebec's territory to the [[Great Lakes]] and [[Ohio Valley]], and re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in Quebec; it angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, helping to fuel the [[American Revolution]].  


==Origin and history of the name==
The Americans invaded in 1775-76, and received some support but most habitants were neutral and the British beat back the invasion.  In 1777 the British used Canada as a base to invade New York, but were decisively defeated and the main army surrendered at Saratoga. The Americans, angry at British support for Indian raids, drove hostile Iroquois out of New York permanently; they resettled in Canada.
{{main|Canada's name}}
<!-- Please see the talk page before editing or reverting this to specify which (of several) languages produced the word Canada. There are differences of opinion, which may be best discussed at the main article Canada's name -->


The name ''Canada'' comes from a [[First Nations]] word, ''kanata'', meaning "village" or "settlement". In [[1535]], inhabitants of the area near present-day [[Quebec City]] used the word to tell [[Jacques Cartier]] the way to the village of [[Stadacona]].<ref>{{cite book | first = Bruce G. |last = Trigger | coauthors =  Pendergast, James F. | year = 1978 |chapter=Saint-Lawrence Iroquoians | title = Handbook of North American Indians Volume 15 | location= Washington |publisher= Smithsonian Institution | pages= pp. 357-361 | id = OCLC 58762737}}</ref> Cartier used the word 'Canada' to refer to not only that village, but the entire area subject to [[Donnacona]], Chief at Stadacona; by 1547, maps began referring to this and the surrounding area as Canada.
The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]] recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. Approximately 50,000 [[United Empire Loyalists]] fled the [[United States of America]] to Canada.<ref name="moore">{{cite book |first= Christopher |last=Moore |year=1994 |title=The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |location= Toronto |id=ISBN 0-7710-6093-9}}</ref> [[New Brunswick]] was split from [[Nova Scotia]] to facilitate Loyalist settlements in the [[Maritimes]]. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking [[Lower Canada]] and English-speaking [[Upper Canada]], granting each their own elected Legislative Assembly.


The French colony of [[Canada, New France|Canada]], [[New France]], was set up along the [[Saint Lawrence River]] and the northern shores of the [[Great Lakes]]. Later, it was split into two British colonies, called [[Upper Canada]] and [[Lower Canada]] until their union as the British [[Province of Canada]] in 1841. Upon [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]] in 1867, the name Canada was officially adopted for the new [[dominion]], which was referred to as the ''Dominion of Canada'' until the 1950s. As Canada increasingly acquired political authority and autonomy from [[United Kingdom|Britain]], the federal government increasingly used simply ''Canada'' on state documents and treaties. The [[Canada Act 1982]] refers only to ''Canada'' and, as such, is currently the only legal (and bilingual) name. This was reflected again in 1982 with the renaming of the national holiday from [[Dominion Day]] to [[Canada Day]].
Canada was a major front in the [[War of 1812]] between the United States and the British Empire. Prior to the war large numbers of immigrants from the United States brought with them [[Republicanism, U.S.|Republican values]]. The defence of Canada contributed to a sense of imperial loyalty among British residents, who repudiated Republicanism. Large-scale immigration to Canada began in 1815 from Britain and Ireland. The timber industry surpassed the fur trade in importance in the early 1800s.  


== History ==
===Province of Canada===
{{Main|History of Canada|Timeline of Canadian history}}
The desire for [[Responsible Government]] resulted in the aborted [[Rebellions of 1837]]. As a result, the Durham Report(1839) recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture.<ref name="ce_durhamreport">{{cite web |author=David Mills |publisher= Historica Foundation of Canada |url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002473 |title=Durham Report |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> The [[Act of Union (1840)]] merged [[The Canadas]] into the [[United Province of Canada]]. French and English Canadians would work together in the Assembly to reinstate French rights. They later established [[Responsible government#British North America|responsible government]] in 1849, as would all British North American colonies. [[Montreal]] was the capital of the United Province of Canada, from 1844 to 1849, until the House of Assembly was burned by an angry mob. <ref>{{cite web
Although Aboriginal tradition holds that the [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|First Peoples]] inhabited parts of Canada since the dawn of time, archaeological studies date human presence in northern [[Yukon]] to 26,500 years ago, and in southern [[Ontario]] to 9,500 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Cinq-Mars | first = J. | year = 2001 | title = On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia | journal = The World of Elephants - International Congress, Rome | url = http://www.cq.rm.cnr.it/elephants2001/pdf/424_428.pdf | accessdate = 2006-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Wright, J.V |publisher= Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation |url=http://www.civilization.ca/archeo/hnpc/npvol04e.html |title=A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes|date=[[2001-09-27]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> Europeans first arrived when the [[Vikings]] settled briefly at [[L'Anse aux Meadows]] circa AD 1000. The next Europeans to explore Canada's Atlantic coast included [[John Cabot]] in 1497 and [[Martin Frobisher]] in 1576, for [[Kingdom of England|England]]; and [[Jacques Cartier]] in 1534 and [[Samuel de Champlain]] in 1603, for [[France]]. The first permanent European settlements were established by the French at [[Port Royal, Nova Scotia|Port Royal]] in 1605 and [[Quebec City]] in 1608, and by the English in [[Newfoundland]], around 1610.  European explorers and trappers brought European diseases that spread rapidly through native trade routes and decimated the Aboriginal population.
|url=http://www.vehiculepress.com/montreal/oldmontreal.html |title=Walking Tour of Old Montreal |work=Vehicule Press
  |accessdate=2008-01-30}}</ref>


[[Image:Death-wolfe.jpg|thumb|left|240px|''[[The Death of General Wolfe]]'', painted by [[Benjamin West]], depicts British [[James Wolfe|General Wolfe]]'s death after his victory at the [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham]] in 1759.]]
In 1846 Britain and the United States ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel, and paving the way for British colonies on [[Colony of Vancouver Island|Vancouver Island (1849)]] and in [[Colony of British Columbia|British Columbia (1858)]]. Canada launched a series of western exploratory expeditions to claim [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[Arctic]] region. The Canadian population grew rapidly because of high birth rates; British immigration was offset by emigration to the United States, especially by French Canadians moving to [[New England]].


For much of the [[17th century]], the English and French colonies in North America were able to develop in relative isolation from each other.{{fact}} French colonists extensively settled the [[St. Lawrence River]] valley, while English colonists largely settled in the [[Thirteen Colonies]] to the south. However, as competition for territory, naval bases, furs and fish escalated, several wars broke out between the French, [[Kingdom of England|English]] and Native tribes. The [[French and Iroquois Wars]] erupted between the [[Iroquois|Iroquois Confederation]] and the [[Algonquin]], with their French allies, over control of the fur trade. A series of four [[French and Indian Wars]] were fought between 1689 and 1763; these culminated with a complete British victory in the [[Seven Years' War]]. By the terms of [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1763, Britain gained control of all of France's North American territory east of the [[Mississippi River]], except for the remote islands of [[St. Pierre and Miquelon]].  
===Confederation===
Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act brought about Confederation creating "one [[dominion]] under the name of Canada" on July 1, 1867 with four provinces: [[Ontario]], [[Quebec]], [[Nova Scotia]], and [[New Brunswick]].  Canada assumed control of [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[North-Western Territory]] to form the [[Northwest Territories]]. [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] grievances ignited the [[Red River Rebellion]] and the creation of the province of [[Manitoba]] in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|united]] in 1866) and the colony of [[Prince Edward Island]] joined Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively. [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]] [[John A. MacDonald]]'s [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|Conservative Party]] established a [[National Policy]] of [[tariffs]] to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries. To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three trans-continental railways  (most notably the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]]), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the [[North West Mounted Police]] to assert its authority over this territory. Under [[Liberal Party (Canada)|Liberal]] Prime Minister [[Wilfrid Laurier]], continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]] became provinces in 1905.


Following the war, the British found themselves in possession of a mostly French-speaking, [[Roman Catholic]] territory, whose inhabitants had recently taken up arms against Britain. To avert conflict, Britain passed the [[Quebec Act]] of 1774, re-establishing the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in Quebec. The act had unforseen consequences for Britain, however, as it angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, helping to fuel the [[American Revolution]].<ref>{{cite web | author= |publisher= |title= Wars on Our Soil, earliest times to 1885 |accessdate=2006-08-21 |url=http://www.civilization.ca/cwm/gallery1/revolution2_e.html}}</ref> Following the independence of the United States, approximately 50,000 [[United Empire Loyalists]] moved to [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Quebec]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Prince Edward Island]] and Newfoundland.<ref name="moore">{{cite book |first= Christopher |last=Moore |year=1994 |title=The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement |publisher=McClelland & Stewart |location= Toronto |id=ISBN 0-7710-6093-9}}</ref> As they were unwelcome in Nova Scotia, [[New Brunswick]] was carved out of that colony for them in 1784. To accommodate the English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the province was divided into francophone [[Lower Canada]] and anglophone [[Upper Canada]] under the [[Constitutional Act]] in 1791.  
===20th century===
Canada automatically entered the [[World War I|First World War]] in 1914 with Britain's declaration of war, sending volunteers to the Western Front to fight as a national contingent. The [[Conscription Crisis of 1917]] erupted when [[Conservative Party of Canada (historical)|conservative]] Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]] brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] independently of Britain; in 1931 the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] affirmed Canada's independence.  


Canada was a major front in the [[War of 1812]] between the United States and British Empire and its successful defence had important long-term [[War of 1812#Effects on British North America|effects on Canada]], including the building of a sense of unity and nationalism among British North Americans. Large-scale immigration to Canada began in 1815 from Britain and Ireland. A series of agreements led to long-term peace between Canada and the United States, interrupted only briefly by raids made by political insurgents such as the [[Hunters' Lodges]] and the [[Fenian Brotherhood]].
The [[Great Depression of 1929]] brought economic hardship to all of Canada. In response, the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan presaged a welfare state as pioneered by [[Tommy Douglas]] in the 1940s and 1950s. Liberal Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] secured Parliament’s approval for [[Military history of Canada during World War II|entry into the Second World War]] in September 1939, after Germany invaded Poland. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. The economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest militaries in the world.<ref> C.P. Stacey, ''History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War'' (1948)</ref>


Following the failed [[Rebellions of 1837]], which demanded [[responsible government]], colonial officials studied the political situation and issued the [[Report on the Affairs of British North America (1839)|Durham Report]] in 1839. One goal—which proved unacceptable for the alliance of anglophone and francophone reformers that had rebelled in 1837—was to assimilate the French Canadians into British culture.<ref name="ce_durhamreport">{{cite web |author=David Mills |publisher= Historica Foundation of Canada |url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0002473 |title=Durham Report |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> [[The Canadas]] were merged into a single, quasi-federal colony, the [[United Province of Canada]], with the [[Act of Union (1840)]]. The signing of the [[Oregon Treaty]] by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the [[Oregon boundary dispute]], extending the border westward along the [[49th parallel north|49th parallel]] and ending joint occupation of the [[Oregon Country]]/[[Columbia District]]. This led to the creation of the colony of [[Colony of Vancouver Island]] in 1849 and, with the outbreak of the [[Fraser Canyon Gold Rush]], the colony of [[Colony of British Columbia|British Columbia]] in 1858, but both were entirely separate from the United Province of Canada. By the late 1850s, leaders in Canada launched a series of western exploratory expeditions, with the intention of assuming control of [[Rupert's Land]] and the [[Arctic]] region. The Canadian population grew rapidly due to high birth rates; high European immigration was offset by emigration to the United States, especially by French Canadians moving to [[New England]].
In 1949, [[Newfoundland]] joined Confederation as Canada's 10th province. Post-war prosperity and economic expansion ignited a baby boom and attracted immigration from war-ravaged European countries, changing the country's demographics.<ref>{{cite web | author= Harold Troper |publisher= Ontario Institute for Studies in Education |url=http://ceris.metropolis.net/Virtual%20Library/Demographics/troper1/troper1.html |title=History of Immigration to Toronto Since the Second World War: From Toronto 'the Good' to Toronto 'the World in a City' |date=2000-03 |accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref> Canada asserted an independent foreign policy, acting as a neutral broker to diffuse the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956 and deploying Canadian soldiers as part of the first [[peacekeeping|United Nations peacekeeping force]].


[[Image:Johnamacdonald1870.jpg|thumb|left|Sir [[John A. Macdonald]], first [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]].]]
Canada marked its centennial in 1967 with the [[Expo 67]] world's fair in Montreal.  


Following the [[Great Coalition]], the [[Charlottetown Conference]] the [[Quebec Conference, 1864|Quebec Conference]] of 1864, and the [[London Conference of 1866|London Conference]] of 1866, the three colonies&mdash;Canada, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick&mdash;undertook the process of [[Canadian Confederation|Confederation]]. The [[Constitution Act, 1867|British North America Act]] created "one dominion under the name of [[Canada's name#Adoption of Dominion|Canada]]", with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.<ref>{{cite book | last=Farthing |first= John |title= Freedom Wears a Crown |location= Toronto |publisher=Kingswood House |date=1957 |id = ASIN B0007JC4G2}}</ref> After Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the [[North-Western Territory]], which together formed the [[Northwest Territories]] in 1870, inattention to the [[Métis people (Canada)|Métis]] led to the [[Red River Rebellion]] and ultimately to the creation of the province of [[Manitoba]] and its entry into Confederation in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had [[United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia|united]] in 1866) and the colony of [[Prince Edward Island]] joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively. To connect the union and assert authority over the western provinces, Canada constructed three trans-continental railways, most notably the [[Canadian Pacific Railway]], encouraged immigrants to develop the prairies with the [[Dominion Lands Act]], and established the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|North West Mounted Police]]. As settlers went to the prairies on the railway and the population grew, regions of the Northwest Territories were given provincial status forming [[Alberta]] and [[Saskatchewan]] in 1905.
[[Quebec]] underwent profound social and economic changes during the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s. [[Québécois]] nationalists began pressing for greater provincial autonomy. The separatist [[Parti Québécois]] first came to power in 1976. A referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980 was rejected by a solid majority of the population, and a second referendum in [[1995 Quebec referendum|1995]] was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.<ref name="dickinson">{{cite book |first= John Alexander |last=Dickinson |coauthors=Young, Brian |year=2003 |title=A Short History of Quebec |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |edition=3rd edition |location= Montreal |id=ISBN 0-7735-2450-9}}</ref> In 1997, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled [[Reference re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional]]; Quebec's sovereignty movement has continued nonetheless.<ref name="dickinson" />


[[Image:Canadian tank and soldiers Vimy 1917.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Canadian soldiers advance behind a tank at the [[Battle of Vimy Ridge]] in 1917.]]
Under successive [[Liberal Party of Canada|Liberal]] governments of [[Lester B. Pearson]] and [[Pierre Trudeau]], a new [[Canadian nationalism]] emerged. Canada adopted its current [[Flag of Canada|Maple Leaf Flag]] in 1965. In response to a more assertive [[francophone|French-speaking]] [[Quebec]], the federal government became [[Bilingualism in Canada|officially bilingual]] with the [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]] of 1969.  Non-discriminatory [[Immigration to Canada|Immigration Acts]] were introduced in 1967 and 1976, and official  [[Multiculturalism#Origins in Canada|multiculturalism]] in 1971; waves of non-European immigration have changed the face of the country. [[Social democratic]] programs such as [[Medicare (Canada)|Universal Health Care]], the [[Canada Pension Plan]], [[Canada Student Loans]] were initiated in the 1960s and consolidated in the 1970s; provincial governments, particularly Quebec, fought these as incursions into their jurisdictions. Finally, Prime Minister [[Pierre Trudeau]] pushed through the [[patriation]] of the constitution from Britain, enshrining a [[Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] based on [[individual rights]] in the [[Constitution Act of 1982]].
Canada automatically entered the [[First World War]] in 1914 with Britain's declaration of war, and sent formed divisions, composed almost entirely of volunteers, to the Western Front to fight as a national contingent. Casualties were so high that Prime Minister [[Robert Borden]] was forced to bring in [[Conscription Crisis of 1917|conscription]] in 1917; this move was extremely unpopular in Quebec, resulting in his Conservative party losing support in that province. Although the Liberals were deeply divided over conscription, they became the dominant political party.  


In 1919, Canada joined the [[League of Nations]] in its own right, and in 1931 the [[Statute of Westminster 1931|Statute of Westminster]] confirmed that no act of the [[British Parliament]] would extend to Canada without its consent. At the same time, the worldwide [[Great Depression of 1929]] affected Canadians of every class; the rise of the [[Co-operative Commonwealth Federation]] (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan presaged a welfare state as pioneered by [[Tommy Douglas]] in the 1940s and 1950s. After supporting appeasement of Germany in the late 1930s, Liberal Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] secured Parliament’s approval for [[Military history of Canada during World War II|entry into the Second World War]] in September 1939, after Germany invaded Poland. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. <ref name="stacey">{{cite book | last = Stacey |first= C.P.| authorlink =C.P. Stacey | title=History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War | publisher = Queen's Printer | year= 1948}}</ref> The economy boomed during the war mainly due to the amount of military [[materiel]]<!-- This is not a misspelling. Follow the link to find out the difference between material and materiel --> being produced for Canada, Britain, China and the Soviet Union. Canada finished the war with one of the largest militaries in the world.<ref name="stacey" /> In 1949, the formerly independent [[Dominion of Newfoundland]] joined the Confederation as Canada's 10th province.
Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The [[Canada-United States Automotive Agreement]] (or Auto Pact) in 1965 and the [[Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement]] of 1987 were defining moments in integrating the two economies. [[Canadian nationalism|Canadian nationalists]] continued to worry about their cultural autonomy as American television shows, movies and corporations became omnipresent.<ref name="granatstein">{{cite book |first= J.L. |last=Granatstein |year=1997 |title=Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism |publisher=HarperCollins |location= Toronto |id=ISBN 0-00-638541-9}}</ref> However, Canadians take special pride in their [[Health care in Canada|system of universal health care]] and their commitment to multiculturalism.


By Canada's centennial in 1967, heavy post-war immigration from various war-ravaged European countries had changed the country's demographics.<ref>{{cite web | author= Harold Troper |publisher= Ontario Institute for Studies in Education |url=http://ceris.metropolis.net/Virtual%20Library/Demographics/troper1/troper1.html |title=History of Immigration to Toronto Since the Second World War: From Toronto 'the Good' to Toronto 'the World in a City' |date=2000-03 |accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref> In addition, throughout the [[Vietnam War]], thousands of American [[draft dodger]]s fled to and settled in various parts of Canada.<ref>{{cite web | author= |publisher= |title= Toronto Anti-Draft Program: Where the Guys Who Said "No!" Came for Help |accessdate=2006-05-19 |url=http://www.radicalmiddle.com/tadp.htm}}</ref><ref name="CBC Archives on Draft Dodgers">{{cite web | author= |publisher= CBC Archives |title= "Seeking Sanctuary: Draft Dodgers" |accessdate=2006-05-19 |url=http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-71-348/conflict_war/draft_dodgers}}</ref> Increased immigration, combined with the baby boom, an economic strength parallelling that of the 1960s United States, and reaction to the [[Quiet Revolution]] in Quebec, initiated a new type of Canadian nationalism.
==Politics==
In 1867, with the passage by the British parliament of the ''[[British North America Act 1867]]'', the Confederation of Canada was formed.  


At a meeting of First Ministers in November 1981, the federal and provincial governments agreed to the [[patriation]] of the constitution, with [[Amendments to the Constitution of Canada|procedures for amending it]]. Despite the fact that the Quebec government did not agree to the changes, on [[17 April]], [[1982]], Canada, by Proclamation of Queen Elizabeth II, patriated its Constitution from Britain, thereby making Canada wholly sovereign, though the two countries continue to share the same monarch.
Canada is a constitutional monarchy, with the monarch being represented federally by a Governor General and provincially by a Lieutenant Governor General. Support for the monarchy is mixed in Canada, with a lower level of support in French-speaking Quebec. The powers of the provinces and the federal government are laid out in the ''Canada Act''.


After Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes during the [[Quiet Revolution]] of the 1960s, some [[Québécois]] began pressing for greater provincial autonomy, or partial or complete independence from Canada. Alienation between English-speaking Canadians and the Québécois over the language, cultural and social divide had been exacerbated by many events, including the [[Conscription Crisis of 1944]]. While a referendum on [[sovereignty-association]] in [[1980 Quebec referendum|1980]] was rejected by a solid majority of the population, a second referendum in [[1995 Quebec referendum|1995]] was rejected by a margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.<ref name="dickinson">{{cite book |first= John Alexander |last=Dickinson |coauthors=Young, Brian |year=2003 |title=A Short History of Quebec |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |edition=3rd edition |location= Montreal |id=ISBN 0-7735-2450-9}}</ref> In 1997, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled [[Reference re Secession of Quebec|unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional]]; Quebec's sovereignty movement has continued nonetheless. <ref name="dickinson" />
===Federal parties===
The two largest political parties at the federal level are the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], currently in power as a [[minority government]], and the [[Liberal Party of Canada]], who form the [[Official Opposition]]. The other two parties with official party status are the [[New Democratic Party of Canada]] and the separatist [[Bloc Québecois]].


Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The [[Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement]] of 1987 was a defining moment in integrating the two countries. In recent decades, Canadians have worried about their cultural autonomy as American television shows, movies and corporations became omnipresent.<ref name="granatstein">{{cite book |first= J.L. |last=Granatstein |year=1997 |title=Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism |publisher=HarperCollins |location= Toronto |id=ISBN 0-00-638541-9}}</ref> However, Canadians take special pride in their [[Health care in Canada|system of universal health care]] and their commitment to multiculturalism.<ref name="bickerton" >{{cite book |author=Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds). |title=Canadian Politics |publisher=Broadview Press |edition=4th edition |location=Orchard Park, NY |id=ISBN 1-55111-595-6 |year=2004}}</ref>
==International relations==
As a both a former British colony and current Dominion, Canada is a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. It is also a member of [[La Francophonie]], the international association of French-speaking nations. Canada is a member of the [[G8]] and is part of the [[North American Free Trade Agreement]], along with the [[United States of America]] and [[Mexico]]


==Government==
===Military alliances===
[[Image:Canada Parliament2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|[[Parliament Hill]], [[Ottawa]].]]
Canada is a member of [[NORAD]] and [[NATO]]. Canadian troops are currently serving on the front lines in Kandahar, Afghanistan.
{{Main|Government of Canada|Politics of Canada|Monarchy in Canada}}
Canada is a [[constitutional monarchy]] with [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]], Queen of Canada as head of state<ref>{{cite web |author=Heritage Canada |authorlink=Department of Canadian Heritage |publisher= Heritage Canada |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/royalvisit2005/53_e.cfm |title=The Queen and Canada: 53 Years of Growing Together|date=[[2005-04-21]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Governor General of Canada |authorlink=Governor General of Canada |publisher= Governor General of Canada|url=http://www.gg.ca/gg/rr/index_e.asp |title=Role and Responsibilities of the Governor General|date=[[2005-12-06]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref>, and a [[parliamentary democracy]] with a [[federation|federal system]] of [[Parliament|parliamentary government]] and strong democratic traditions.  


[[Constitution of Canada|Canada's constitution]] governs the legal framework of the country and consists of written text and unwritten traditions and conventions.<ref>{{cite web |author=Department of Justice |publisher= Department of Justice, Canada |url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/const/index.html |title=Constitution Acts 1867 to 1982|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> The Constitution includes the [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]], which guarantees basic rights and freedoms for Canadians that, generally, cannot be overridden by legislation of any level of government in Canada. It contains, however, a "[[Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|notwithstanding clause]]", which allows the federal parliament and the provincial legislatures the power to override some other sections of the Charter temporarily, for a period of five years.
==Geography==
Canada consists of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces are [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Ontario]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Quebec]], and [[Saskatchewan]]. The three territories are the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], and [[Yukon Territory]].


The position of [[Prime Minister of Canada|Prime Minister]], Canada's [[head of government]], belongs to the leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority in the [[Canadian House of Commons|House of Commons]]. The Prime Minister and his or her cabinet are formally appointed by the [[Governor General]] (who is the queen's representative in Canada.) However, the Prime Minister chooses the cabinet, and by convention, the Governor General respects the Prime Minister's choices. The [[Cabinet of Canada|Cabinet]] is traditionally drawn from members of the Prime Minister's party in both legislative houses, and mostly from the House of Commons. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet, all of whom are sworn into the [[Privy Council of Canada]] and become Ministers of the Crown. The Prime Minister exercises a lot of political power, especially in the appointment of other officials within the government and [[civil service]]. [[Michaëlle Jean]] has served as [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] since [[September 25]], [[2005]] and [[Stephen Harper]], leader of the [[Conservative Party of Canada|Conservative Party]], has served as Prime Minister since [[February 6]], [[2006]].
===Laurentian Mountains===
 
The [[Laurentian Mountains]] in Quebec is one of the oldest mountain ranges in the world. It contains rocks deposited during [[Cambrian]] time, 540 million years ago. <ref> Encyclopedia Britannica "[http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9369832/Laurentian-Mountains]", ''Encyclopædia Britannica'',© 2007.</ref>.
The [[Parliament of Canada|federal parliament]] is made up of the Queen and two houses: an elected House of Commons and an appointed [[Canadian Senate|Senate]]. Each member in the House of Commons is elected by [[plurality electoral system|simple plurality]] in a [[electoral district (Canada)|"riding" or electoral district]]; general elections are called by the Governor General when the Prime Minister so advises. While there is no minimum term for a Parliament, a new election must be called within five years of the last general election. Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the Prime Minister and formally appointed by the Governor General, and serve until age 75.
 
Canada's four major political parties are the [[Conservative Party of Canada]], [[Liberal Party of Canada]], [[New Democratic Party]] (NDP), and the [[Bloc Québécois]]. The current government is formed by the Conservative Party of Canada. While the [[Green Party of Canada]] and other smaller parties do not have current representation in Parliament, the list of [[List of political parties in Canada#Historical parties that have won seats in Parliament|historical parties with elected representation]] is substantial.
 
==Law==
[[Image:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill]]
{{main|Law of Canada}}
Canada's [[judiciary]] plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution.  The [[Supreme Court of Canada]] is the highest court and final arbiter and is led by the Right Honourable Madam Chief Justice [[Beverley McLachlin]], P.C. Its nine members are appointed by the [[Governor General of Canada|Governor General]] on the advice of the Prime Minister. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed by the Governor General on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice, after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments (see [[Court system of Canada]] for more detail).
 
[[Common law]] prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where [[civil law (legal system)|civil law]] predominates. [[Criminal law in Canada|Criminal law]] is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in most provinces policing is contracted to the federal [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]] (RCMP).
 
==Foreign relations and military==
[[Image:Peacekeeping monument.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Peacekeeping Monument]] in Ottawa.]]
{{Main|Foreign relations of Canada|Canadian Forces|Military history of Canada}}
Canada has a close [[U.S.-Canada relations|relationship with the United States]], sharing the world's longest undefended border, co-operating on some military campaigns and exercises, and being each other's largest trading partners. Canada also shares history and long relationships with the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]], the two former imperial powers most influential in its founding. These relations extend to other former-members of the British and French empires, through Canada's membership in the [[Commonwealth of Nations]] and [[La Francophonie]].
 
Canada joined the [[Organization of American States]] (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in Windsor in June 2000, and the third Summit of the Americas in Quebec City in April 2001. Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]] forum (APEC).
 
Over the past 60 years, Canada has been an advocate for [[multilateralism]], making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.<ref name="canada_policy">
{{cite book | author = Government of Canada| title = Canada's international policy statement : a role of pride and influence in the world| publisher = Government of Canada | location = Ottawa |url=http://www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca/cip-pic/IPS/IPS-Overview.pdf | year = 2005 | id = ISBN 0-662-68608-X}}</ref><ref name="middle_powers">{{cite book | first = Andrew Fenton |last = Cooper |coauthors= Higgot, Richard A.; Nossal, Kim R. | title = Relocating Middle Powers: Australia and Canada in a Changing World Order| publisher = UBC Press | location = Vancouver |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Hw3laaTpOiIC&pg=PP1&lpg=PP1&vq=reaching+out&dq=Canada+middle+power&psp=s&sig=0009fdoEDuy42hFgXuCmmymun6c | year = 1993 | id = ISBN 0-7748-0450-5 }}</ref> This was clearly demonstrated during the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956 when [[Lester B. Pearson]] eased tensions by proposing [[peacekeeping]] efforts and the inception of the [[UN peacekeeping|United Nations Peacekeeping Force]].<ref name="lester">{{cite web |author=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |authorlink= Canadian Broadcasting Corporation | publisher= CBC.ca |title= Lester B. Pearson |url= http://www.cbc.ca/greatest/top_ten/nominee/pearson-lester.html |date=2006 | accessdate=2006-05-22}}</ref> In that spirit, Canada developed and has tried to maintain a leading role in UN peacekeeping efforts; Canada has served in 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989.<ref>{{cite book| first = Desmond | last = Morton | authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian)| title = A Military History of Canada| publisher = McClelland & Stewart | location = Toronto | year = 1999 | id = ISBN 0-7710-6514-0 | pages = pg. 258}}</ref> Canada's UN peacekeeping contributions have diminished over the first years of the 21st century.
 
[[Image:Canadian soldiers afghanistan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Canadian soldiers in [[Afghanistan]].]]
A founding member of the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO), Canada currently employs about 62,000 regular and 26,000 reserve military personnel.<ref>{{cite web |author=Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs) |authorlink=Department of National Defence (Canada) |publisher= Department of National Defence |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/about/family_e.asp |title=The National Defence family|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> The unified [[Canadian Armed Forces|Canadian Forces]] (CF) comprise the [[Canadian Forces Land Force Command|army]], [[Canadian Forces Maritime Command|navy]], and [[Canadian Forces Air Command|air force]]. Major CF equipment deployed includes 1,400 armoured fighting vehicles, 34 combat vessels, and 861 aircraft.<ref name="cf_equipment">{{cite web |author=Assistant Deputy Minister (Public Affairs) |authorlink=Department of National Defence (Canada) |publisher=Department of National Defence |url=http://www.forces.gc.ca/site/Reports/cds_report/anxd_e.asp |title=Canadian Forces Equipment |accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref>
 
In addition to major participation in the [[Second Boer War]], the [[First World War]], the [[Second World War]], and the [[Korean War]], Canada has maintained forces in international missions under the United Nations and NATO since 1950, including peacekeeping missions, various missions in the former [[Yugoslavia]], and support to coalition forces in the [[First Gulf War]]. Since 2001, Canada has had troops deployed in [[Afghanistan]] as part of the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|U.S. stabilization force]] and the UN-authorized, NATO-commanded [[International Security Assistance Force]]. Canada's [[Disaster Assistance Response Team]] (DART) has participated in three major relief efforts in the past two years; the two-hundred member team has been deployed in relief operations after [[Hurricane Katrina]] in September 2005, after the [[2005 Kashmir earthquake|Kashmir earthquake]] in October 2005 and after the [[2004 tsunami|December 2004 tsunami]] in South Asia.
 
==Administrative divisions==
[[Image:Map_Canada_political-geo.png|thumb|right|300px|A geopolitical map of Canada, exhibiting its [[Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada|10 provinces and 3 territories]].]]
{{main|Provinces and territories of Canada}}
Canada is composed of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces are [[Alberta]], [[British Columbia]], [[Manitoba]], [[New Brunswick]], [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Ontario]], [[Prince Edward Island]], [[Quebec]], and [[Saskatchewan]]. The three territories are the [[Northwest Territories]], [[Nunavut]], and [[Yukon|Yukon Territory]]. The provinces have a [[Canadian federalism|large degree of autonomy]] from the federal government, the territories somewhat less. Each has its own [[List of Canadian provincial and territorial symbols|provincial or territorial symbols]].
 
The provinces are responsible for most of Canada's social programs (such as [[Health care in Canada|health care]], [[Education in Canada|education]], and [[welfare (financial aid)|welfare]]) and together collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. The federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the [[Canada Health Act]]; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. [[Equalization payments]] are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.
 
All provinces have [[unicameral]], elected [[Legislative Assemblies of Canada's provinces and territories|legislatures]] headed by a [[premier (Canada)|Premier]] selected in the same way as the Prime Minister of Canada. Each province also has a [[Lieutenant-Governor (Canada)|Lieutenant-Governor]] representing the [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen]], analogous to the Governor General of Canada, appointed on the recommendation of the Prime Minister of Canada, though with increasing levels of consultation with provincial governments in recent years.
 
==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Canada-satellite.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A satellite composite image of Canada. [[Boreal forest]]s prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in the [[Arctic]] and through the [[Coast Mountains]] and [[Saint Elias Mountains]], and the relatively flat [[Prairies]] facilitate agriculture. The [[Great Lakes]] feed the [[St. Lawrence River]] (in the southeast) where lowlands host much of Canada's population.]]
{{main|Geography of Canada}}
Canada occupies most of the northern portion of [[North America]]. It shares land borders with the [[contiguous United States]] to the south and with the US state of [[Alaska]] to the northwest, stretching from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the east to the [[Pacific Ocean]] in the west; to the north lies the [[Arctic Ocean]]. Since 1925, Canada has claimed the portion of the Arctic between 60°W and 141°W [[longitude]];<ref name="territorial_evolution">{{cite web |author=National Resources Canada |publisher= National Resources Canada |url=http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/1927/1 |title=Territorial Evolution, 1927|date=[[2004-04-06]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> this claim is not universally recognized. The northernmost settlement in Canada (and in the world) is [[CFS Alert|Canadian Forces Station (CFS) Alert]] on the northern tip of [[Ellesmere Island]]—latitude 82.5°N—just 834 kilometres (450 [[nautical mile]]s) from the North Pole. Canada is the world's second-largest country in total area, after [[Russia]].
 
The population density of 3.5 people per square kilometre (9.1/[[square mile|mi²]]) is among the lowest in the world.<ref name="population_density">{{cite web |author=WorldAtlas.com |publisher= WorldAtlas.com |url=http://worldatlas.com/aatlas/populations/ctydensityl.htm |title=Countries of the World (by lowest population density) |date=2006-02 |accessdate=2006-05-16}}</ref> The most densely populated part of the country is the [[Quebec City-Windsor Corridor]] along the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River in the southeast. To the north of this region is the broad [[Canadian Shield]], an area of rock scoured clean by the [[Wisconsin glaciation|last ice age]], thinly soiled, rich in minerals, and dotted with lakes and rivers—Canada by far has more lakes than any other country in the world and has a large amount of the world's freshwater.<ref name="altas_lakes">{{cite web |author=The Atlas of Canada |publisher=National Resources Canada|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/freshwater/distribution/drainage/1 |title= Drainage patterns |date=[[2004-04-02]] |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | author = Encarta| title = Canada | publisher = Microsoft Corporation | accessdate = 2006-06-12| date = 2006 | url = http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761563379/Canada.html}}</ref>
 
[[Image:Niagara_Falls_and_Maid_of_the_Mist_2005.JPG|thumb|left|250px|The [[Horseshoe Falls (Canada)|Horseshoe Falls]] in Ontario is the largest component of [[Niagara Falls]], one of the world's greatest waterfalls<ref name="AtlasSignificantFacts">{{cite web |author=Natural Resources Canada |authorlink=Natural Resources Canada |publisher= Natural Resources Canada |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/facts/supergeneral.html |title=Significant Canadian Facts |date=[[2004-04-05]]|accessdate=2006-05-16}}</ref>, a major source of hydroelectric power, and a tourist destination.]]
 
In eastern Canada, the Saint Lawrence River widens into the [[Gulf of Saint Lawrence]], the world's largest [[estuary]]; the island of [[Newfoundland]] lies at its mouth. South of the Gulf, the [[Canadian Maritimes]] protrude eastward from the [[Gaspé Peninsula]] of Quebec. [[New Brunswick]] and [[Nova Scotia]] are divided by the [[Bay of Fundy]], which experiences the world's largest tidal variations. [[Ontario]] and [[Hudson Bay]] dominate central Canada. West of Ontario, the broad, flat [[Canadian Prairies]] spread toward the [[Rocky Mountains]], which separate them from [[British Columbia]].
 
[[Northern Canada|Northern Canadian]] vegetation tapers from [[coniferous]] forests to [[tundra]] and finally to Arctic barrens in the far north.  The northern Canadian mainland is ringed with a vast [[Canadian Arctic Archipelago|archipelago]] containing some of the [[List of islands by area|world's largest islands]].
 
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada range depending on the location.
Winters can be harsh in many regions of the country, particularly in the Prairie provinces, where daily average temperatures are near &minus;15 °[[Celsius|C]] (5 °[[Fahrenheit|F]]), but can drop below -40&nbsp;°C (-40&nbsp;°F) with severe wind chills. <ref name="twn_regina">{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |authorlink=The Weather Network |publisher=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02072.htm?CASK0261 |title=Statistics, Regina SK |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> Coastal British Columbia is an exception and enjoys a temperate climate with a mild and rainy winter.
 
Average summer high temperatures across Canada range depending on the location. On the east and west coast average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s&nbsp;°C (68 to 74&nbsp;°F), while  between the coasts the average summer high temperature range between 25&nbsp;°C to 30&nbsp;°C (78 to 86&nbsp;°F) with occasional extreme heat in some interior locations exceeding 40&nbsp;°C (104&nbsp;°F). <ref name="twn_vancouver">{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |authorlink=The Weather Network |publisher=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02096.htm?CABC0308 |title=Statistics: Vancouver Int'l, BC |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref><ref name="twn_toronto">{{cite web |author=The Weather Network |authorlink=The Weather Network |publisher=The Weather Network |url=http://www.theweathernetwork.ca/weather/stats/pages/C02017.htm?CAON0696 |title=Statistics: Toronto Pearson Int'l |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> For a more complete description of climate across Canada see Environment Canada's Website.<ref>{{cite web |author=Environment Canada |authorlink=Environment Canada |publisher= Environment Canada |url=http://www.climate.weatheroffice.ec.gc.ca/climate_normals/index_e.html |title=Canadian Climate Normals or Averages 1971-2000|date=[[2004-02-25]]|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref><br clear="right">
 
==Economy==
[[Image:Canadian_bills.jpg|right|thumb|160px|Five denominations of [[Canadian banknotes]], depicting (from top to bottom) [[Wilfrid Laurier]], [[John A. Macdonald]], [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Queen Elizabeth II]], [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]], and [[Robert Borden]].]]
{{Main|Economy of Canada|Economic history of Canada}}
 
Canada is one of the world's wealthiest nations with a high per capita income, a member of the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD) and [[Group of Eight]] (G8).  Canada is a [[free market]] economy with slightly more government intervention than the United States, but much less than most European nations. Canada has traditionally had a lower per capita [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) than its southern neighbour (whereas wealth has been more equally divided), but higher than the large western European economies. For the past decade, after a period of turbulence, the Canadian economy has been growing rapidly with low [[unemployment]] and large government surpluses on the [[Government of Canada|federal]] level. Today Canada closely resembles the U.S. in its market-oriented economic system, pattern of production, and high living standards. While [[as of 2006|as of July 2006]], Canada's national unemployment rate of 6.4% is among its lowest in 30 years, provincial unemployment rates vary from a low of 3.6% in Alberta to a high of 14.6% in Newfoundland and Labrador.<ref name="statcan_labour">{{cite web | author=Statistics Canada |authorlink= Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www.statcan.ca/english/Subjects/Labour/LFS/lfs-en.htm |title=Latest release from Labour Force Survey |date=[[2006-08-04]] |accessdate=2006-08-04}}</ref>
 
In the past century, the impressive growth of the manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy into one primarily industrial and urban. As with other [[first world nation]]s, the Canadian economy is dominated by the [[service industry]], which employs about three quarters of Canadians.<ref name="cia_factbook">{{cite web |author=Central Intelligence Agency |publisher= Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ca.html |title=The World Factbook: Canada |date=[[2006-05-16]] |accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of the [[primary industry|primary sector]], with the [[logging]] and [[petroleum|oil]] industries being two of Canada's most important.
 
Canada is one of the few developed nations that is a net exporter of energy.<ref name="cia_factbook" /> Canada has vast deposits of natural gas on the east coast and large oil and gas resources centred in Alberta, and also present in neighbouring British Columbia and Saskatchewan. The vast [[Athabasca Tar Sands]] give Canada the world's second largest reserves of oil behind [[Saudi Arabia]].<ref name="athabasca">{{cite web |author=Clarke, Tony; Campbell, Bruce; Laxer, Gordon |publisher= Parkland Institute |url=http://www.ualberta.ca/PARKLAND/research/perspectives/LaxerClarkeCampbellMar06OpEd.htm |title=U.S. oil addiction could make us sick |date=[[2006-03-10]]|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> In Quebec, British Columbia, Newfoundland & Labrador, Ontario and Manitoba, [[hydroelectric power]] is a cheap and relatively environmentally friendly source of abundant energy.
 
Canada is one of the world's most important suppliers of agricultural products, with the Canadian Prairies one of the most important suppliers of wheat and other grains.<ref name="ce_agriculture">{{cite web |author=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher= Historica Foundation of Canada |url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=J1SEC80771 |title=Agriculture and Food: Export markets |date=2006|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> Canada is the world's largest producer of zinc and uranium and a world leader in many other natural resources such as gold, nickel, aluminum, and lead;<ref name="ce_minig">{{cite web |author=The Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher= Historica Foundation of Canada |url=http://www.canadianencyclopedia.ca/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC824436 |title=Canadian Mining |date=2006|accessdate=2006-05-18}}</ref> many, if not most, towns in the northern part of the country, where agriculture is difficult, exist because of a nearby mine or source of timber.  Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector, centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with the [[automobile industry]] especially important.
 
In part due to the large primary sector Canada is highly dependent on [[international trade]], especially trade with the [[United States]]. The 1989 [[Canada-U.S. Free Trade Agreement]] (FTA) and 1994 [[North American Free Trade Agreement]] (NAFTA) (which included Mexico) touched off a dramatic increase in trade and economic integration with the U.S. Since 2001, Canada has successfully avoided economic recession and has maintained the best overall economic performance in the G8.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/default.asp?Language=E&Page=archivechretien&Sub=Speeches&Doc=commonwealthbusinessforum.20031204_e.htm
|publisher = Privy Council Office, Government of Canada | last = Chretien | first = Jean | date = 2003-12-04 | accessdate = 2006-08-07 | title = Notes for an Address by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien on the Occasion of the Commonwealth Business Forum}}</ref>
 
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Canada|List of cities in Canada|List of Canadians by ethnicity|Immigration to Canada}}
The [[Canada 2001 Census|2001 national census]] recorded 30,007,094 people; the population is currently estimated by [[Statistics Canada]] to be 32.5 million people.<ref name="statscan_population_clock">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www.statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm |title=Canada's population clock|date=[[2006-02-14]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> Population growth is largely accomplished through [[Immigration to Canada|immigration]] and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. About three-quarters of Canada's population live within 160 kilometres (100 [[mile|mi]]) of the U.S. border. A similar proportion live in [[urban area]]s concentrated in the [[Quebec City-Windsor Corridor]] (notably the [[Toronto]]-[[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]], [[Montreal]], and [[National Capital Region (Canada)|Ottawa]] [[census metropolitan area]]s), the BC [[Lower Mainland]] ([[Vancouver]] and environs), and the [[Calgary-Edmonton Corridor]] in Alberta.
[[Image:Cntower2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Toronto]], [[Ontario]] is one of the world's most multicultural cities.<ref name="toronto_multicultural">{{cite web |author=City of Toronto  |publisher= City of Toronto |url=http://www.toronto.ca/toronto_facts/diversity.htm |title=Toronto's racial diversity|date=2006|accessdate=2006-05-19}}</ref>]]
Canada is an ethnically diverse nation. According to the 2001 census, it has 34 ethnic groups with at least one hundred thousand members each. The largest ethnic group is "Canadian" (39.4%), followed by [[English-Canadian|English]] (20.2%), [[French Canadian|French]] (15.8%), [[Scottish-Canadian|Scottish]] (14.0%), [[Irish-Canadian|Irish]] (12.9%), [[German-Canadian|German]] (9.3%), [[Italian Canadian|Italian]] (4.3%), [[Chinese Canadian|Chinese]] (3.7%), [[Ukrainian Canadian|Ukrainian]] (3.6%) and [[First Nations]] (3.4%).<ref name="statscan_ethnic">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo26a.htm |title=Population by selected ethnic origins, by provinces and territories|date=[[2005-01-25]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> Canada's [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|aboriginal]] population is growing almost twice as fast as the rest of the Canadian population. In 2001, 13.4% of the population belonged to [[visible minorities]].
 
Canadians adhere to a [[Religion in Canada|wide variety of religions]]. According to the last census,<ref name="statscan_religion">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo30a.htm |title=Population by religion, by provinces and territories|date=[[2005-01-25]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> 77.1% of Canadians identified as being [[Christianity|Christians]]; of this, [[Catholicism|Catholics]] make up the largest group (43.6% of Canadians). The largest [[Protestant]] denomination is the [[United Church of Canada]]; about 17% of Canadians declared no religious affiliation, and the remaining 6.3% were affiliated with religions other than Christianity, of which the largest is [[Islam]]. 
 
In Canada, the provinces and territories are responsible for education; thus Canada has no national department of education. Each of the 13 education systems are similar while reflecting their own regional history, culture and geography.<ref name="education">{{cite web | author =Council of Ministers of Canada | publisher = Education@Canada | title = General Overview of Education in Canada | url= http://www.educationcanada.cmec.ca/EN/EdSys/over.php | accessdate = 2006-05-22 }}</ref> The mandatory school age varies across Canada but generally ranges between the ages of 5-7 to 16-18,<ref name="education" /> contributing to an adult literacy rate that is 99%.<ref name="cia_factbook" /> Postsecondary education is the responsibility of the provincial and territorial governments that provide most of their funding; the federal government provides additional funding through research grants. In 2002, 43% of Canadians aged between 25 and 64 had post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34 the postsecondary attainment reaches 51%.<ref>{{cite web | author = Department of Finance | publisher = Department of Finance Canada | title = Creating Opportunities for All Canadians | url= http://www.fin.gc.ca/ec2005/agenda/agc4e.html| date = [[2005-11-14]] | accessdate = 2006-05-22}}</ref>


==Language==
==Language==
[[Image:Mont.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The population of [[Montreal, Quebec|Montreal]] is predominantly [[francophone]], with a significant [[anglophone]] community.]]
English and French are Canada's two official languages. The [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]] enshrines the personal freedoms and language rights in Canada.
{{Main|Language in Canada|Bilingualism in Canada}}
Canada's two official languages, [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]], are the [[mother tongue]]s of 59.7% and 23.2% of the population, respectively.<ref name="statscan_language">
{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a.htm |title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory|date=[[2005-01-27]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref> On [[July 7]], [[1969]], under the [[Official Languages Act (Canada)|Official Languages Act]], French was made commensurate to English throughout the federal government. This started a process that led to Canada redefining itself as an officially "[[bilingual]]" nation.
 
English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. The public has the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French. While [[Official Multiculturalism Act|multiculturalism is official policy]], to become a citizen one must be able to speak either English or French, and 98.5% of Canadians speak at least one (English only: 67.5%, French only: 13.3%, both: 17.7%).<ref name="statscan_language2">{{cite web |author=Statistics Canada |authorlink=Statistics Canada |publisher= Statistics Canada |url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo15a.htm |title=Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory|date=[[2005-01-27]]|accessdate=2006-05-14}}</ref>
 
French is mostly spoken in Quebec, but there are substantial francophone populations mainly in the northern parts of New Brunswick, eastern, northern and southwestern Ontario and southern Manitoba. Of those who speak French as a first language, 85% live in Quebec. Ontario has the largest French population outside Quebec. French is the official language of Quebec. New Brunswick is the only bilingual province in the country.<ref>While Manitoba, Ontario and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages, New Brunswick is the only province to have a statement of official bilingualism in the constitution. See [http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca/progs/lo-ol/pubs/mythes/english/abc.html Canadian Heritage]</ref> No provinces other than Quebec and New Brunswick have constitutionally official language(s) as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and other government services in all of the majority English or [[Inuktitut]] speaking provinces and territories. In Ontario, French has some legal status but is not fully co-official. Several aboriginal languages have official status in Northwest Territories. [[Inuktitut]] is the majority language in Nunavut, and one of three official languages in the territory.
 
Non-official languages are important in Canada, with 5,202,245 people listing one as a first language.<ref name="statscan_language" /> Some significant non-official first languages include [[Chinese language|Chinese]] (853,745 first-language speakers), [[Italian language|Italian]] (469,485), [[German language|German]] (438,080), and [[Punjabi]] (271,220).<ref name="statscan_language" />
 
==Culture==
[[Image:RCMP officer Expo 67.jpg|thumb|250px|The [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police]], seen here at [[Expo 67]], are the federal and national police force of Canada and an international icon.]]
{{Main|Culture of Canada|National symbols of Canada|Sport in Canada}}
Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by [[English people|English]], [[French people|French]], [[Irish people|Irish]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]] and [[Aboriginal peoples in Canada|Aboriginal]] cultures and traditions, and over time has been greatly influenced by [[American culture]] due to its proximity and the interchange of [[human capital]] between the two countries. Many forms of American media and entertainment are popular, if not dominant in Canada; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and entertainers are successful in the US and worldwide. Many cultural products are now marketed toward a unified "North American" market, or a global market generally.
 
The creation and preservation of distinctly Canadian culture has been partly influenced by federal government programs, laws and institutions such as the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] (CBC), the [[National Film Board of Canada]] (NFB), and the [[Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission]] (CRTC).
 
[[Image:Kwakwaka'wakw big house.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A [[Kwakwaka'wakw]] [[totem pole]] and traditional "long house" in [[Victoria, British Columbia|Victoria, BC]].]]
As Canada is a geographically vast and ethnically diverse country, there are cultural variations and distinctions from province to province and region to region. Canadian culture has also been greatly influenced by more recent immigration of people from all over the world. Many Canadians value [[multiculturalism]], indeed some see Canadian culture as being inherently multicultural.<ref name="bickerton" /> Multicultural heritage is enshrined in [[Section Twenty-seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]]. 
 
[[National symbols of Canada|National symbols]] are influenced by natural, historical, and [[First Nations]] sources. Particularly, the use of the [[maple leaf]], as a Canadian symbol, dates back to the early 18th century and is depicted on its [[Flag of Canada|current]] and [[Red Ensign|previous]] flags, the [[penny (Canadian coin)|penny]], and on the [[Coat of Arms of Canada|coat of arms]]. Other prominent symbols include the [[beaver]], [[Canada goose]], [[common loon]], [[Monarchy in Canada|the Crown]], and the [[Royal Canadian Mounted Police|RCMP]].
 
Canada's official national sports are [[ice hockey]] (winter) and [[lacrosse]] (summer).<ref name="National Sports of Canada Act">{{cite web | url= http://lois.justice.gc.ca/en/N-16.7/251603.html | title= National Sports of Canada Act (1994) | work = Consolidated Statutes and Regulations| accessdate= 2006-07-20 | publisher= [[Department of Justice (Canada)|Department of Justice]]}}</ref> Hockey is a [[national pastime]], and is by far the most popular spectator sport in the country. It is also the most popular sport Canadians play, with 1.65 million active participants in 2004.<ref name = "sports">{{cite web | author = Conference Board of Canada| authorlink = Conference Board of Canada | year = 2004 | month = December | url = http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/sc/pubs/socio-eco/tab2_tab_e.cfm  | title = Survey: Most Popular Sports, by Type of Participation, Adult Population | publisher = Sport Canada | work = Strengthening Canada: The Socio-economic Benefits of Sport Participation in Canada — Report August 2005 | accessdate = 2006-07-01}}</ref> Canada's six largest metropolitan areas - Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa, Calgary, and Edmonton - have franchises in the [[National Hockey League]] (NHL), and there are more Canadian players in the league than from all other countries combined. After hockey, other popular spectator sports include [[Canadian football]] and [[curling]]. The [[Canadian Football League]] (CFL) is the nation's second most popular professional sports league,<ref>{{cite web | author = Canadian Press| authorlink = Canadian Press | date = 2006-06-08 | url = http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20060608.wsurvey8/BNStory/Sports/home  | title = Survey: Canadian interest in pro football is on the rise | publisher = Globe and Mail | accessdate = 2006-06-08}}</ref> and plays a large role in Canada's national identity<ref>{{cite web | author = Official Site of the Canadian Football League| authorlink = Canadian Football League | date = 2006-05-09 | url = http://www.cfl.ca/index.php?module=newser&func=display&topicnum=&nid=7991&writer=0  | title = Canon Scores With the CFL | publisher = CFL.ca | accessdate = 2006-06-08}}</ref>. [[Golf]], [[baseball]], [[skiing]], [[Soccer in Canada|soccer]], [[volleyball]], and [[basketball]] are also widely played at youth and amateur levels<ref name = "sports"/>, but professional leagues and franchises are not as widespread. Canada will host the [[2007 FIFA U-20 World Cup]], and the [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in [[Vancouver]] and [[Whistler, British Columbia|Whistler]], [[British Columbia]].


==International rankings==
Quebec has distanced itself from a Canadian identity, and businesses have followed suit. For example, in 2007 Bombardier's  new national TV ad campaign extols the plane-and-train maker's Canadian identity, but omits any such reference in the French-language version. "Planes. Trains. Canadian Spirit" becomes "Planes. Trains. A Source of Pride" in the French TV spots ("Des avions. Des trains. Une fierté"). Advertisers have long realized that many of Quebec's francophone speakers are hostile to ads containing pro-Canada sentiments. Wal-Mart Canada's Quebec communications chief explains, "In many cases, if you have a prominent reference to Canada, half the population won't listen or will be irritated." Labatt's popular Blue brand of beer sports a Maple Leaf on its label, but in Quebec it is replaced with a red wheat sheaf. Molson Coors beer company did not run the famous "I Am Canadian" TV ads in Quebec; it sells its Molson Dry brand in Quebec while the Canadian brand is its flagship brew in the rest of Canada.<ref> Bertrand Marotte, "'I Am Canadian' - but not necessarily in Quebec marketing," in ''Globe and Mail'' December 7, 2007 at [http://www.reportonbusiness.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20071207.r-quebec08/BNStory/robMarketing/home]</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Organization
! Survey
! Ranking
|-
| [[A.T. Kearney]]/[[Foreign Policy|Foreign Policy Magazine]]
| [http://www.atkearney.com/main.taf?p=5,4,1,116 Globalization Index 2005]
| 14 out of 111
|-
| [[IMD International]]
| [http://www01.imd.ch/wcy/ World Competitiveness Yearbook 2005]
| 5 out of 60
|-
| [[The Economist]]
| [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 The World in 2005 - Worldwide quality-of-life index, 2005]
| 14 out of 111
|-
| [[Yale University]]/[[Columbia University]]
| [http://www.yale.edu/esi/ESI2005_Main_Report.pdf Environmental Sustainability Index, 2005 (pdf)]
| 6 out of 146
|-
| [[Reporters Without Borders]] World-wide
| [http://www.rsf.org Press Freedom Index 2005]
| 21 out of 167
|-
| [[Transparency International]]
| [http://www.transparency.org/cpi/2005/2005.10.18.cpi.en.html Corruption Perceptions Index 2005]
| 14 out of 159
|-
| [[Heritage Foundation]]/[[The Wall Street Journal]]
| [http://www.heritage.org/research/features/index/ Index of Economic Freedom, 2006]
| 12 out of 157
|}


Canada was ranked number one country by the United Nations' [[Human Development Index]] 10 times out of 16 between 1980 and 2004.
==Flag==
The current "Maple Leaf" flag of Canada was adopted in 1965 after great controversy.  The Canadian Red Ensign was the previous national flag and had the Union Jack design, a British symbol, in the canton area of the flag. <ref>see [http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/df1_e.cfm] </ref>


==See also==
==Sports==
{{Canadian topics}}
see [[Canada, sports]]


==References==
==References==
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<div class="references-small">
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break|width=50%}}
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*{{cite book
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| edition = 2nd ed.
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| publisher = University of Toronto Press
| location = Toronto
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 0-8020-8293-9
}}
;History
*{{cite book
| title = History of Canada Since 1867
| first = Robert | last = Bothwell
| publisher = Michigan State University Press
| year = 1996
| location = East Lansing, MI
| id = ISBN 0-87013-399-3
}}
*{{cite book
| title = History of the Canadian Peoples
| first = J. | last = Bumsted
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = Oxford, UK
| year = 2004
| id = ISBN 0-19-541688-0
}}
*{{cite book
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| location = Toronto
| year = 2003
| id = ISBN 0-201-73060-X
}}
*{{cite book
| title = A Short History of Canada
| first = Desmond | last= Morton
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian)
| publisher =  M & S
| location = Toronto
| year = 2001
| edition = 6th ed.
| id = ISBN 0-7710-6509-4
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = W. Kaye | last = Lamb
| title = Canada
| journal = The Canadian Encyclopedia
| year = 2006
| url = http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=J1SEC808542
}}
*{{cite book
| title = History of Canada Before 1867
| first = Gordon T. | last = Stewart
| publisher = Michigan State University Press
| year = 1996
| location = East Lansing, MI
| id = ISBN 0-87013-398-5
}}
 
;Government
*{{cite book
|author=Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds).
|title=Canadian Politics
|publisher=Broadview Press
|edition=4th edition
|location=Orchard Park, NY
|id=ISBN 1-55111-595-6
|year=2004
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Stephen | last=Brooks
|title=Canadian Democracy : An Introduction
|publisher=Oxford University Press Canada
|edition=3rd edition
|location=Don Mills, ON
|id=ISBN 0-19-541503-5
|year=2000
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Eugene A. | last = Forsey
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| title = How Canadians Govern Themselves
| edition = 6th ed.
| publisher = Canada
| location = Ottawa
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 0-662-39689-8
| url = http://www.parl.gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf
}}
*{{cite book
| title = Secession and international law : conflict avoidance - regional appraisals
| first = Julie | last = Dahlitz
| publisher = T.M.C. Asser Press
| year = 2003
| location = The Hague
| id = ISBN 90-6704-142-4
}}
 
;Foreign relations and military
*{{cite journal
| first = Tim | last = Cook
| year = 2005
| title = Quill and Canon: Writing the Great War in Canada
| journal = American Review of Canadian Studies
| volume = 35
| issue = 3
| pages = 503+
}}
*{{cite book
| first = James| last = Eayrs
| title = In Defence of Canada
| publisher = University of Toronto Press
| location = Toronto
| year = 1980
| id = ISBN 0-8020-2345-2
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Annette Baker| last = Fox
| authorlink =
| title = Canada in World Affairs
| edition =
| publisher = Michigan State University Press
| location = East Lansing
| year = 1996
| id = ISBN 0-87013-391-8
| url =
}}
*{{cite journal
| first = Molot Maureen | last = Appel
| year = 1990
| month = Spring-Fall
| title = Where Do We, Should We, Or Can We Sit? A Review of the Canadian Foreign Policy Literature
| journal = International Journal of Canadian Studies
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Desmond | last = Morton
| coauthors = Granatstein, J.L.
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian)
| title = Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914-1919
| edition =
| publisher = Lester & Orpen Dennys
| location = Toronto
| year = 1989
| id = ISBN 0-88619-209-9
| url =
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Desmond | last = Morton
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian)
| title = A Military History of Canada
| edition =
| publisher = McClelland & Stewart
| location = Toronto
| year = 1999
| id = ISBN 0-7710-6514-0
| url =
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Desmond | last = Morton
| authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian)
| title = When Your Number's Up: The Canadian Soldier in the First World War
| edition =
| publisher = Random House of Canada
| location = Toronto
| year = 1993
| id = ISBN 0-394-22288-1
| url =
}}
*{{cite book
| first = James | last = Rochlin
| authorlink =
| title = Discovering the Americas: The Evolution of Canadian Foreign Policy towards Latin America
| edition =
| publisher = University of British Columbia Press
| location = Vancouver
| year = 1994
| id = ISBN 0-7748-0476-9
| url =
}}
 
;Provinces and territories
*{{cite book
| first = J. M.
| last = Bumsted
| title = History of the Canadian Peoples
| publisher = Oxford University Press
| location = Oxford, UK
| year = 2004
| id =  ISBN 0-19-541688-0
}}
 
{{col-break|width=50%}}
 
;Geography and climate
 
*{{cite book
| last = Natural Resources Canada
| title = National Atlas of Canada
| publisher = Information Canada
| location = Ottawa
| year = 2005
| id = ISBN 0-7705-1198-8
}}
*{{cite book
| title = Canadian Oxford World Atlas
| author = Stanford, Quentin H. (ed.)
| edition = 5th ed.
| location = Toronto
| publisher = Oxford University Press (Canada)
| id = ISBN 0-19-541897-2
| year = 2003
}}
 
;Economy
*{{cite book
|author=Central Intelligence Agency
|authorlink=Central Intelligence Agency
|title=The World Factbook
|publisher=National Foreign Assessment Center
|location=Washington, DC
|id=ISSN 1553-8133
|year=2005
|url=https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Iain | last=Wallace
|title=A Geography of the Canadian Economy
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|location=Don Mills, ON
|id=ISBN 0-19-540773-3
|year=2002
}}
*{{cite book
|first = William L. | last=Marr
|coauthor= Paterson, Donald G.
|title= Canada: An Economic History
|publisher= Gage
|location=Toronto
|id = ISBN 0-7715-5684-5
|year=1980
}}
*{{cite book
|first = Mary Quayle | last=Innis
|title=An Economic History of Canada
|publisher=Ryerson Press
|location=Toronto
|id = ASIN B0007JFHBQ
|year = 1943
}}
 
;Demography and statistics
*{{cite book
| last = Statistics Canada
| title = Canada Year Book
| publisher = Queen of Canada
| location = Ottawa
| year = 2001
| id = ISBN 0-660-18360-9
}}
*{{cite book
| title = Historical statistics of Canada
| author = Leacy, F. H. (ed.)
| publisher = Statistics Canada
| location = Ottawa
| id =
| url = http://www.statcan.ca/english/freepub/11-516-XIE/sectiona/toc.htm
| year = 1983
}}
 
;Language
*{{cite web
| author=Statistics Canada
| authorlink=Statistics Canada
| publisher= Statistics Canada
| url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo11a.htm
| title=Population by mother tongue, by province and territory
| date=[[2005-01-27]]
| accessdate=2006-05-14
}}
*{{cite web
| author=Statistics Canada
| authorlink=Statistics Canada
| publisher= Statistics Canada
| url=http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo15a.htm
| title=Population by knowledge of official language, by province and territory
| date=[[2005-01-27]]
| accessdate=2006-05-14}}
 
;Culture
*{{cite book
|author=Bickerton, James & Gagnon, Alain-G & Gagnon, Alain (Eds).
|title=Canadian Politics
|publisher=Broadview Press
|edition=4th edition
|location=Orchard Park, NY
|id=ISBN 1-55111-595-6
|year=2004
}}
*{{cite web
|first=John D. |last=Blackwell
|url=http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html#culture
|title=Culture High and Low
|year=2005
|accessdate=2006-03-15
|publisher=International Council for Canadian Studies World Wide Web Service
}}
*{{cite book
| author=Canadian Heritage
| title=Symbols of Canada
| year=2002
| location=Ottawa, ON
| id=ISBN 0-660-18615-2
| publisher=Canadian Government Publishing
}} Similar publication online [http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/cpsc-ccsp/sc-cs/index_e.cfm here].
*{{cite web
|author=National Film Board of Canada
|authorlink=National Film Board of Canada
|url=http://www.nfb.ca/atonf/organisation.php?v=h&lg=en
|title=Mandate of the National Film Board
|year=2005
|accessdate=2006-03-15
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Gordon | last = Currie
| title = 100 years of Canadian football: The dramatic history of football's first century in Canada, and the story of the Canadian Football League
| publisher = Pagurian Press
| location = Don Mills, ON
| year = 1968
| id = ASIN B0006CCK4G
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Doug | last = Maxwell
| title = Canada Curls: The Illustrated History of Curling in Canada
| publisher = Whitecap books
| location = North Vancouver, BC
| year = 2002
| id = ISBN 1-55285-400-0
}}
*{{cite book
| first = Brian | last = McFarlane
| title = Brian McFarlane's History of Hockey
| year = 1997
| location = Champaign, IL
| publisher = Sports Publishing Inc
| id = ISBN 1-57167-145-5
}}
*{{cite book
|first=Philip |last=Resnick
|title=The European Roots Of Canadian Identity
|publisher=Broadview Press
|location=Peterborough, Ont.
|id=ISBN 1-55111-705-3
|year=2005
}}
*{{cite book
| author=Ross, David & Hook, Richard
| title=The Royal Canadian Mounted Police 1873-1987
| publisher= Osprey
| location=London
| id=ISBN 0-85045-834-X
| year=1988
}}
{{col-end}}
</div>
 
==Notes==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>
<!-- No longer referenced: #{{note|WSM}} [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Canada.html Canada from WorldStatesmen]-->
<!-- No longer referenced: #{{note|WWT}} [http://people-press.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=165 What the World Thinks]-->
 
==External links==
{{portal}}
{{Sisterlinks|Canada}}
* [http://www.gc.ca Official website of the Government of Canada]
* [http://www.pm.gc.ca Offical website of the Prime Minister of Canada]
* [http://www.gg.ca Official website of the Governor General of Canada]
* [http://atlas.gc.ca/site/index.html Official Government of Canada online Atlas of Canada]
* [http://www.cbc.ca/ Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]
* [http://www.forces.gc.ca/ Canadian Forces Official Site]
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Canada Encyclopaedia Britannica, Canada - Country Page]
* [http://www.culture.ca/ Culture.ca - Canada's Cultural Gateway]
* [http://www.culturescope.ca/ Culturescope.ca - Canadian Cultural Observatory]
* [http://www.iccs-ciec.ca/blackwell.html Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources]
* [http://statcan.ca/english/edu/clock/population.htm Statistics Canada with Canada's population clock]
* [http://www.canadiangeographic.ca/atlas/ The Canadian Atlas Online]
* [https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ca.html Canada] at ''[[The World Factbook]]''
* [http://www.international.gc.ca/canada_un/new_york/ Permanent Mission of Canada to the United Nations]
* UN Human Development Program: [http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_CAN.html Country Fact Sheet: Canada], [http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/countries.cfm?c=CAN Statistics - Country Sheet: Canada]
*{{wikitravelpar|Canada}}
 
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[[Category:Geography Workgroup (Top)]]

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PD Flag
National flag of Canada.
(PD) Map: CIA World Factbook
Map of Canada.

Canada is the world's second largest country by total area, occupying most of northern North America. Extending from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, Canada shares land borders with the United States of America to the south and to the northwest. Canada is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy. It was formed as a confederation of British colonies in 1867 and secured effective independence in the 1920s. With a population of 35 million spread over 10 million km², and major oil supplies, Canada is one of the most prosperous countries of the world and a magnet for immigrants. It is an active member of NATO and the United Nations. Since the 1970s a sovereignty movement in French-speaking Quebec has proposed independence for the province, but the issue is currently quiet. Liberal Justin Trudeau became the prime minister in 2015; the capital is Ottawa.

History

see Canada, history

First Nations

Aboriginal tradition holds that the First Peoples inhabited parts of Canada since the dawn of time. Archaeological studies support a human presence in northern Yukon to 26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario to 9,500 years ago.[1][2]

Discovery and Exploration

Europeans first arrived when the Vikings settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows circa AD 1000. The next Europeans to explore Canada's Atlantic coast included John Cabot in 1497 for England and Jacques Cartier in 1534 for France. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608. Among French colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the St. Lawrence River valley, Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while French fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The French and Iroquois Wars broke out over control of the fur trade.

British settlement and takeover

The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland around 1610 and colonized the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four Intercolonial Wars between France and England occurred between 1689 and 1763. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded all of New France to Britain following the Seven Years' War.

The Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. It also restricted the language and religious rights of French Canadians. In 1769, St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony. To avert conflict in Quebec, the Quebec Act of 1774 expanded Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley, and re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in Quebec; it angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, helping to fuel the American Revolution.

The Americans invaded in 1775-76, and received some support but most habitants were neutral and the British beat back the invasion. In 1777 the British used Canada as a base to invade New York, but were decisively defeated and the main army surrendered at Saratoga. The Americans, angry at British support for Indian raids, drove hostile Iroquois out of New York permanently; they resettled in Canada.

The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. Approximately 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled the United States of America to Canada.[3] New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia to facilitate Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada and English-speaking Upper Canada, granting each their own elected Legislative Assembly.

Canada was a major front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the British Empire. Prior to the war large numbers of immigrants from the United States brought with them Republican values. The defence of Canada contributed to a sense of imperial loyalty among British residents, who repudiated Republicanism. Large-scale immigration to Canada began in 1815 from Britain and Ireland. The timber industry surpassed the fur trade in importance in the early 1800s.

Province of Canada

The desire for Responsible Government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. As a result, the Durham Report(1839) recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture.[4] The Act of Union (1840) merged The Canadas into the United Province of Canada. French and English Canadians would work together in the Assembly to reinstate French rights. They later established responsible government in 1849, as would all British North American colonies. Montreal was the capital of the United Province of Canada, from 1844 to 1849, until the House of Assembly was burned by an angry mob. [5]

In 1846 Britain and the United States ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel, and paving the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). Canada launched a series of western exploratory expeditions to claim Rupert's Land and the Arctic region. The Canadian population grew rapidly because of high birth rates; British immigration was offset by emigration to the United States, especially by French Canadians moving to New England.

Confederation

Following several constitutional conferences, the British North America Act brought about Confederation creating "one dominion under the name of Canada" on July 1, 1867 with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories. Métis grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward Island joined Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively. Prime Minister John A. MacDonald's Conservative Party established a National Policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries. To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three trans-continental railways (most notably the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the North West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory. Under Liberal Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.

20th century

Canada automatically entered the First World War in 1914 with Britain's declaration of war, sending volunteers to the Western Front to fight as a national contingent. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain; in 1931 the Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.

The Great Depression of 1929 brought economic hardship to all of Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan presaged a welfare state as pioneered by Tommy Douglas in the 1940s and 1950s. Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King secured Parliament’s approval for entry into the Second World War in September 1939, after Germany invaded Poland. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. The economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest militaries in the world.[6]

In 1949, Newfoundland joined Confederation as Canada's 10th province. Post-war prosperity and economic expansion ignited a baby boom and attracted immigration from war-ravaged European countries, changing the country's demographics.[7] Canada asserted an independent foreign policy, acting as a neutral broker to diffuse the Suez Crisis of 1956 and deploying Canadian soldiers as part of the first United Nations peacekeeping force.

Canada marked its centennial in 1967 with the Expo 67 world's fair in Montreal.

Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes during the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s. Québécois nationalists began pressing for greater provincial autonomy. The separatist Parti Québécois first came to power in 1976. A referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980 was rejected by a solid majority of the population, and a second referendum in 1995 was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50.6% to 49.4%.[8] In 1997, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional; Quebec's sovereignty movement has continued nonetheless.[8]

Under successive Liberal governments of Lester B. Pearson and Pierre Trudeau, a new Canadian nationalism emerged. Canada adopted its current Maple Leaf Flag in 1965. In response to a more assertive French-speaking Quebec, the federal government became officially bilingual with the Official Languages Act of 1969. Non-discriminatory Immigration Acts were introduced in 1967 and 1976, and official multiculturalism in 1971; waves of non-European immigration have changed the face of the country. Social democratic programs such as Universal Health Care, the Canada Pension Plan, Canada Student Loans were initiated in the 1960s and consolidated in the 1970s; provincial governments, particularly Quebec, fought these as incursions into their jurisdictions. Finally, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau pushed through the patriation of the constitution from Britain, enshrining a Charter of Rights and Freedoms based on individual rights in the Constitution Act of 1982.

Economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II. The Canada-United States Automotive Agreement (or Auto Pact) in 1965 and the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement of 1987 were defining moments in integrating the two economies. Canadian nationalists continued to worry about their cultural autonomy as American television shows, movies and corporations became omnipresent.[9] However, Canadians take special pride in their system of universal health care and their commitment to multiculturalism.

Politics

In 1867, with the passage by the British parliament of the British North America Act 1867, the Confederation of Canada was formed.

Canada is a constitutional monarchy, with the monarch being represented federally by a Governor General and provincially by a Lieutenant Governor General. Support for the monarchy is mixed in Canada, with a lower level of support in French-speaking Quebec. The powers of the provinces and the federal government are laid out in the Canada Act.

Federal parties

The two largest political parties at the federal level are the Conservative Party of Canada, currently in power as a minority government, and the Liberal Party of Canada, who form the Official Opposition. The other two parties with official party status are the New Democratic Party of Canada and the separatist Bloc Québecois.

International relations

As a both a former British colony and current Dominion, Canada is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. It is also a member of La Francophonie, the international association of French-speaking nations. Canada is a member of the G8 and is part of the North American Free Trade Agreement, along with the United States of America and Mexico

Military alliances

Canada is a member of NORAD and NATO. Canadian troops are currently serving on the front lines in Kandahar, Afghanistan.

Geography

Canada consists of ten provinces and three territories. The provinces are Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland and Labrador, Nova Scotia, Ontario, Prince Edward Island, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. The three territories are the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon Territory.

Laurentian Mountains

The Laurentian Mountains in Quebec is one of the oldest mountain ranges in the world. It contains rocks deposited during Cambrian time, 540 million years ago. [10].

Language

English and French are Canada's two official languages. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms enshrines the personal freedoms and language rights in Canada.

Quebec has distanced itself from a Canadian identity, and businesses have followed suit. For example, in 2007 Bombardier's new national TV ad campaign extols the plane-and-train maker's Canadian identity, but omits any such reference in the French-language version. "Planes. Trains. Canadian Spirit" becomes "Planes. Trains. A Source of Pride" in the French TV spots ("Des avions. Des trains. Une fierté"). Advertisers have long realized that many of Quebec's francophone speakers are hostile to ads containing pro-Canada sentiments. Wal-Mart Canada's Quebec communications chief explains, "In many cases, if you have a prominent reference to Canada, half the population won't listen or will be irritated." Labatt's popular Blue brand of beer sports a Maple Leaf on its label, but in Quebec it is replaced with a red wheat sheaf. Molson Coors beer company did not run the famous "I Am Canadian" TV ads in Quebec; it sells its Molson Dry brand in Quebec while the Canadian brand is its flagship brew in the rest of Canada.[11]

Flag

The current "Maple Leaf" flag of Canada was adopted in 1965 after great controversy. The Canadian Red Ensign was the previous national flag and had the Union Jack design, a British symbol, in the canton area of the flag. [12]

Sports

see Canada, sports

References

  1. ↑ Cinq-Mars, J. (2001). "On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia". The World of Elephants - International Congress, Rome. Retrieved on 2006-05-14.
  2. ↑ Wright, J.V (2001-09-27). A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes. Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation. Retrieved on 2006-05-14.
  3. ↑ Moore, Christopher (1994). The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement. Toronto: McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 0-7710-6093-9. 
  4. ↑ David Mills. Durham Report. Historica Foundation of Canada. Retrieved on 2006-05-18.
  5. ↑ Walking Tour of Old Montreal. Vehicule Press. Retrieved on 2008-01-30.
  6. ↑ C.P. Stacey, History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War (1948)
  7. ↑ Harold Troper (2000-03). History of Immigration to Toronto Since the Second World War: From Toronto 'the Good' to Toronto 'the World in a City'. Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Retrieved on 2006-05-19.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Dickinson, John Alexander; Young, Brian (2003). A Short History of Quebec, 3rd edition. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 0-7735-2450-9. 
  9. ↑ Granatstein, J.L. (1997). Yankee Go Home: Canadians and Anti-Americanism. Toronto: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-638541-9. 
  10. ↑ Encyclopedia Britannica "[1]", Encyclopædia Britannica,© 2007.
  11. ↑ Bertrand Marotte, "'I Am Canadian' - but not necessarily in Quebec marketing," in Globe and Mail December 7, 2007 at [2]
  12. ↑ see [3]
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