Anthropology

Anthropology is the holistic study of humankind. It studies all human life in all geographic regions of all time periods, from its evolution as Homo sapiens to its diverse manifestations within cultures and societies both past and present. Since recorded history, people have sought answers to such probing questions as Who are we? How have we come to be as we are? How can diverse peoples peaceably co-exist? and What might the past and present tell us about our future? Anthropology seeks to answer these and many other fundamentally humanistic questions.

Anthropology employs both qualitative and quantitative research methods within its numerous sub-disciplines. Common to all anthropologists is the method of fieldwork. A physical anthropologist may dig pre-historic sites in Central Africa to discover clues about humankind's origins and early migration patterns, while an applied anthropologist plays games with inner-city Chicago schoolchildren to advise administrators on how to create conflict-reducing after-school programs. A socio-cultural anthropologist may live in a hut among Haitian peasants to learn the meanings of their unique rituals and political economy, while a linguistic anthropologist interacts with modern Chamorro language speakers at a barbecue to discover clues about the people group's most ancient origins. Within each of these and the myriad of other ways and places in which anthropologists day-by-day research, they seek answers to benefit humankind. Anthropology has been described as "the reformer's science", and "the most humanistic of the sciences and the most scientific of the humanities".

The development of anthropology

Although humans have probably always studied other humans, anthropology as an academic discipline found its roots in the Enlightenment and largely began as an extension of the work of anatomists and others who studied the human body. They sought to understand humans through measurements of the body such as cephalic index.

Museum anthropology

The field began to gain momentum during the second half of the 19th century following publications by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin that offered a new way to look at the origins of humankind and the many facets of human cultures. (Evolutionism)

Franz Boas

Functionalism

Structuralism

The many facets of anthropology

Sub-disciplines

Anthropology in the United States is traditionally divided according to the four field approach. The fields include archaeology, physical or biological anthropology, socio-cultural anthropology and linguistic anthropology. Each sub-discipline approaches the study of humans from a slightly different perspective, and they come together to give a more holistic understanding of ourselves than any one of them could provide individually.

Archaeology

Archaeology has been called "the past tense of anthropology." It studies human remains as a way to understand the people who created those remains. This includes mapping settlement patterns, economic structures, religious institutions, dietary regimens, art forms, people's interactions with their environments and much more. Archaeologists generally make use of two techniques, called "surveys" and "excavations," to piece together the lives of past inhabitants of a site.

Surveys are the more recent of the two tools. They are often performed before excavations in order to give the archaeologist a preliminary picture of the site, but they are also sometimes conducted in place of an excavation because they are less expensive and faster to implement and because they cause less irreversible damage to the site. Surveys create a map of the site using various methods (including human recorders, aerial photography, and magnetometers) to comb an area and record the type and location of artifacts and features.

Excavations systematically remove layers of soil in an area of interest in order to discover the different ways that the site was used over time. Excavations are necessarily a destructive process, and must be conducted with great care. Archaeologists record the precise location, or provenance, of the artifacts and features that are discovered and then look at the spacial and temporal relationships between their discoveries.

Physical anthropology

Physical or biological anthropology studies the human as a biological species. Physical anthropologists study genetics and physiology in modern populations as well as in the fossil record in order to learn more about the processes of human evolution and adaptation.

Perhaps the most prominent current project in the field of physical anthropology is the The Genographic Project. Genographic has launched an effort to collect DNA specimens from indigenous populations around the world as a tool to help them trace the history of human migration around the world. They compare the characteristics that they observe in each human population with the characteristics of other populations to determine how long ago those populations diverged.

Socio-cultural anthropology

Socio-cultural anthropology is the branch of anthropology that is most often associated with the term "anthropology." It studies the abstract structures that help people to better understand the world around them and to interact with each other and their environments. This branch studies kinship structures, subsistence strategies, religious and cosmological beliefs, and the myriad of other constructs that work together to determine a person's experience of the world.

Socio-cultural anthropology is heavily reliant on participant observation. This is a systematic approach to the recording of cultures, the development of which is generally credited to Bronislaw Malinowski. An anthropologist will live with the people that he or she is interested in studying and take part in the every-day activities, and special rituals of those people in order to learn the explicit and tacit aspects of their culture. The researcher then carefully records his or her observations in field notes for later use in cultural analysis.

Cross-cultural anthropology also falls under this heading. It uses examples of similarity or difference in different cultures to make broader observations about structures of human thought and social organization. This might take the form of comparing data from neighboring cultures like the Kumeyaay and the Cahuilla peoples of southern California to learn more about a particular culture area or it might involve the comparison of data from Guatemala and Vietnam to study approaches to economic integration in developing countries.

Methods of research in socio-cultural anthropology also include interviews, questionnaires, and content analysis.

Linguistic anthropology

Linguistic anthropology studies people through their use of language. This includes studies of written language, oral expression, manual languages such as American Sign Language, and various forms of nonverbal communication like smiles and waves. Linguistic anthropologists research the meaning that is created by these different types of communication as well as the context in which that meaning is created. They seek to learn what the differences are between the language that different people use in similar situations as well as the variations in the language that a single person uses in different situations.

Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf are widely cited as the most important figures in this field, due to the theory that became known as the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. This theory comes in two forms: strong linguistic determinism and weak linguistic determinism. The "strong" formulation says that the way that a person thinks is completely dependent on the language that the individual speaks. The "weak" version claims that a person's thoughts are merely influenced (though they may be influenced rather strongly) by the person's language. This second version of linguistic determinism is a major assumption in much of the research that is conducted in the field of linguistic anthropology whereas the "strong" version is more often rejected for being too exacting.

Linguistic Anthropology is closely related to the fields of anthropological linguistics, which studies language through the biological human and sociolinguistics, which studies the ways that societal structures influence language use.

Applied anthropology

Applied anthropology is not one of the four traditional sub-disciplines of anthropology, but it plays an important part in our study of humans through the unique approach that it takes toward its subject. This field draws on the knowledge that is gained through other approaches to anthropology and applies the results as a way to expand upon them. Applied anthropologists undertake their research with the goal of integrating "anthropological perspectives and methods in solving human problems throughout the world."