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Gel Electrophoresis
Gel Electrophoresis is a method of separating nucleic acids and peptides using an electric current. The molecules are loaded into a porous gel and an electric current is applied, driving the molecules toward the anode. After the molecules have been separated, various stains and software can be used to visualize and analyze the results.
DTT focuses on changing observable behaviors by using successive approximations of behaviors and shaping new responses. A skill must be broken down into small parts and taught in steps. Reinforcement plays a key role in the success of this treatment. DTT also focuses on being clear and concise in commands and is the overall treatment of choice by most parents and therapists.
History
Gel electrophoresis has remained one of the most powerful analytical tools since its development in the early 1900’s. Prior to modern gel electrophoresis, also known as zone electrophoresis because of the distinct zones of material created, electrophoretic techniques produced poorly separated substances in liquid solutions within a tube. Sample movement was monitored by changes in the resulting shadows (3). This format was described by Tiselius and produced only very partially purified samples of the fastest moving particulates (1). The current standard for electrophoresis, including two-dimensional electrophoresis, which still qualifies as zone electrophoresis, relies on movement and containment of samples within a gel matrix according to their individual charge. Two-dimensional gel electrophoresis provides the highest level of separation attainable through gel electrophoresis and can produce over 1000 unique zones (4). Originally, single dimension gel electrophoresis was used as a method to separate proteins, however with the discovery of DNA, the focus for most of the mid twentieth century was on isolating DNA strands. This trend continued even after the creation of two-dimensional separation techniques by O’Farrell in 1975 (2). While electrophoresis was utilized for both DNA and proteins after the creation of two-dimensional gel electrophoresis, the use for proteins didn’t increase again until after the human genome was sequenced. It was at this point that the focus of research shifted from genomics towards proteomics. With the increased knowledge from the Human Genome Project, the application of two-dimensional gel electrophoresis for cancer research was ideal. Currently, there are many tools which perform powerful separations including LC, HPLC, UHPLC, CE, and GC, however gel electrophoresis remains one of most common due to its ease of operation, high separation resolution, and low cost.
Methods of Providing Intervention
The Trainer’s Presentation
The trainer must begin by prompting the child to do a task or identify something. For example “Do this” or “What is this?” The command must be clear and concise and the trainer often must direct the child’s response such as guiding their hands.
The Child’s Response
The child gives a correct or incorrect response to the trainer’s cue.
The Consequence
If the child exhibits the correct response it must immediately be followed with reinforcement. Reinforcement will vary for different children and can range from rewards such as food or tokens to verbal praise. If the response is incorrect, the trainer says “No” and removes the teaching materials or signals the response was incorrect in some other way.
Short Pause Between Consequence and Next Instruction
After giving consequence, the trainer must pause for a short period such as 5-15 seconds before going on to the next trial and repeating the steps.
Pedagogy
Recent research has been based more on how to teach individuals DTT intervention techniques as opposed to if the treatment is effective. Individuals who have been researched in this section include university students, teachers, parents, and direct care staff.
Self-instructional manual and checklists
Self-instructional manuals are one form of teaching DTT to prospective trainers. A study was done at the University of Manitoba in which accuracy increased substantially after giving students a manual to read. [4] Manuals can be effective, especially for people who need a better idea of what DTT is and what is to be expected of them. Also, a trainer can use the manual as a resource to go back to if they have questions.
Checklists are often important in analyzing if DTT intervention is effective or to provide trainers with steps to implementing DTT. Experimenters used a checklist to analyze video recordings of participants and found it was an effective way to gauge accuracy. [5] Trainers can use the steps on the checklist to learn the methods needed to implement DTT and having a checklist to refer to can be really important in promoting generalization.
Video Recording
Video recording is very important in training DTT as well as assessing accuracy. Video recordings are often used to teach the methods of DTT. Video recordings can be very useful in showing a scenario to learners that is representative of an actual session of DTT. Also, it is very cost effective because a video can be shown over and over. Video training is often used in training any job or skill and has shown to be an effective way to teach DTT. Video recording is also very useful to look back at a study and code the data such as how many times a behavior occurred. [6]
Modeling
The use of modeling is important for teaching DTT. In DTT, the learner views the instructor implement part of the treatment and is expected to watch and be able to repeat the methods and steps that they were shown. Modeling is often very effective with learners who do not have an extensive knowledge of DTT because it allows them to see what they need to do. [5] It can also be effective with people who have worked hands on with children with autism because they are often implementing treatments, but do not know the methods they are using by name. [7]
Criticisms
There is a lot of controversy surrounding the use of the word Training in DTT because this term is usually used for non-human teaching such as obedience training with dogs.
References
1. Ghezzi, P. M. (2007). Discrete Trials Training. Psychology in Schools, 44 (7), 667-679. doi: 10.1002 /pits.20256
2. Rothstein, A. (2008). The History of Applied Behavior Analysis: It’s not just Discrete Trial Teaching. Retreived from: http://www.autismcentral.ca/research/images/stories/rothstein-aba_article-june_9-08.pdf
3. Behavioral Neurotherapy Clinic. (2009). ABA for Autism. Retrieved from: http://www.autism.net.au/Autism_ABA.htm
4. Thiessen, C., Fazzio, D., Arnal, L., Martin, G. L., Yu, C. T., & Keilback, L. (2009). Evaluation of a Self-Instructional Manual for Conducting Discrete-Trials Teaching With Children With Autism. Behavior Modification, 33 (3) 360-373. doi: 10.1177/0145445508327443
5. Lafasakis, M., & Sturmey, P. (2007). Training Parent Implementation of Discrete-Trial Teaching: Effects on Generalization of Parent Teaching and Child Correct Responding. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40 (4). 685-689. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.685-689
6. Catania, C., Almedia, D., Lui-Constant, B., & Reed, F.D. (2009). Video Modeling to Train Staff to Implement Discrete-Trial Instruction. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 42 (2), 387-392. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2009.42-387
7. Dib, N., & Sturmey, P. (2007). Reducing Student Stereotypy by Improving Teachers’ Implementation of Discrete-trial Training. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 40(2), 339-343. doi: 10.1901/jaba.2007.52-06