Pneumonia
| Pneumonia | |
|---|---|
| ICD-9 | 480
-486 |
Pneumonia is defined as "inflammation of the lungs."[1]
Classification
Pneumonia can be classified along various dimensions including clinical setting, underlying etiology, and its gross appearance (bronchopneumonia versus lobar pneumonia).
Aspiration pneumonia
Community acquired pneumonia
Atypical pneumonia
Nosocomial pneumonia
Ventilator associated pneumonia
Diagnosis
History and physical examination
A clinical prediction rule found the five following signs from the medical history and physical examination best predicted infiltrates on the chest radiograph of 1134 patients presenting to an emergency room:[2]
- Temperature > 100 degrees F (37.8 degrees C)
- Pulse > 100 beats/min
- Crackles
- Decreased breath sounds
- Absence of asthma
The probability of an infiltrate in two separate validations was based on the number of findings:
- 5 findings - 84% to 91% probability
- 4 findings - 58% to 85%
- 3 findings - 35% to 51%
- 2 findings - 14% to 24%
- 1 findings - 5% to 9%
- 0 findings - 2% to 3%
A subsequent study[3] comparing four clinical prediction rules to physician judgment found that two clinical prediction rules, the one above[2] and another[4] were more accurate than physician judgment because of the increased specificity of the prediction rules.
Treatment
Antibiotics
Aspiration pneumonia
Community acquired pneumonia
The 'respiratory quinolones' (levofloxacin, moxifloxacin, gemifloxacin) may be the best choices.[5]
The optimal duration of antibiotic treatment for community acquired pneumonia is not clear.[6]
Ventilator associated pneumonia
Treatments that are ineffective
Chest physiotherapy includes postural drainage, percussion, and vibration and has been call the 'ketchup-bottle method'[7] of treating pneumonia. Chest physiotherapy and intermittent positive-pressure breathing have been shown not to help in a small randomized controlled trial.[8]
Prognosis
Short term prognosis and the decision to hospitalize
The prognosis of community acquired pneumonia can be estimated with several clinical prediction rules:
- Pneumonia severity index (PSI) - the PSI may be more accurate than the CURB-65[9] and is available online (Pneumonia Severity Index Calculator).
- Patients with PSI Risk groups I-III can usually be treated as an outpatient.[10]
- CURB-65
- SMART-COP is a new clinical prediction rule that may be better according to a single study.[11] Patients are high risk if they have three or more points from the following:
- systolic blood pressure < 90 (2 points)
- multilobar chest radiography involvement (1 point)
- albumin level < 3.5 mg/dl (1 point)
- high respiratory rate. 25 or more breaths per minute if less than 50 years old, else 30 or more breaths per minute (1 point)
- tachycardia of 125 or more bpm (1 point)
- confusion, new onset (1 point)
- poor oxygenation. Either of the following adds 2 points:
- PaO2 < 70 mm Hg if less than 50 years old, else < 60 mm Hg
- PaO2/FiO2 < 333 if less than 50 years old, else if less than 250.
- arterial pH < 7.35 (2 points)
- SCAP score is a new clinical prediction rule that may be better than the Pneumonia severity index and CURB-65[12]
- PIRO is another clinical prediction rule specifically for severe pneumonia.[13]
C-reactive protein and procalcitonin
Several studies have compared the c-reactive protein and procalcitonin in the prognosis of pneumonia.[14][15][16]
Prognosis at the time of discharge
Abnormal medical signs at discharge are associated with higher mortality with 30 days.[17]
Long term prognosis
Prevention
Clinical practice guidelines are available for administering vaccines for pneumonia at http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/.
References
- ↑ Anonymous (2024), Pneumonia (English). Medical Subject Headings. U.S. National Library of Medicine.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 Heckerling PS, Tape TG, Wigton RS, et al (1990). "Clinical prediction rule for pulmonary infiltrates". Ann. Intern. Med. 113 (9): 664–70. PMID 2221647. [e]
- ↑ Emerman CL, Dawson N, Speroff T, et al (1991). "Comparison of physician judgment and decision aids for ordering chest radiographs for pneumonia in outpatients". Annals of emergency medicine 20 (11): 1215–9. DOI:10.1016/S0196-0644(05)81474-X. PMID 1952308. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Gennis P, Gallagher J, Falvo C, Baker S, Than W (1989). "Clinical criteria for the detection of pneumonia in adults: guidelines for ordering chest roentgenograms in the emergency department". The Journal of emergency medicine 7 (3): 263–8. PMID 2745948. [e]
- ↑ Vardakas KZ, Siempos II, Grammatikos A, Athanassa Z, Korbila IP, Falagas ME (December 2008). "Respiratory fluoroquinolones for the treatment of community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials". CMAJ 179 (12): 1269–1277. DOI:10.1503/cmaj.080358. PMID 19047608. PMC 2585120. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Li JZ, Winston LG, Moore DH, Bent S (2007). "Efficacy of short-course antibiotic regimens for community-acquired pneumonia: a meta-analysis". Am. J. Med. 120 (9): 783–90. DOI:10.1016/j.amjmed.2007.04.023. PMID 17765048. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Murray JF (1979). "The ketchup-bottle method". N. Engl. J. Med. 300 (20): 1155–7. PMID 431639. [e]
- ↑ Graham WG, Bradley DA (1978). "Efficacy of chest physiotherapy and intermittent positive-pressure breathing in the resolution of pneumonia". N. Engl. J. Med. 299 (12): 624–7. PMID 355879. [e]
- ↑ Aujesky D, Auble TE, Yealy DM, et al (2005). "Prospective comparison of three validated prediction rules for prognosis in community-acquired pneumonia". Am. J. Med. 118 (4): 384-92. DOI:10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.01.006. PMID 15808136. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Carratalà J, Fernández-Sabé N, Ortega L, et al (February 2005). "Outpatient care compared with hospitalization for community-acquired pneumonia: a randomized trial in low-risk patients". Ann. Intern. Med. 142 (3): 165–72. PMID 15684204. [e]
- ↑ Charles PG, Wolfe R, Whitby M, et al (August 2008). "SMART-COP: a tool for predicting the need for intensive respiratory or vasopressor support in community-acquired pneumonia". Clin. Infect. Dis. 47 (3): 375–84. DOI:10.1086/589754. PMID 18558884. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Yandiola PP, Capelastegui A, Quintana J, et al. (June 2009). "Prospective comparison of severity scores for predicting clinically relevant outcomes for patients hospitalized with community-acquired pneumonia". Chest 135 (6): 1572–9. DOI:10.1378/chest.08-2179. PMID 19141524. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Rello J, Rodriguez A, Lisboa T, Gallego M, Lujan M, Wunderink R (December 2009). "PIRO score for community-acquired pneumonia: A new prediction rule for assessment of severity in intensive care unit patients with community-acquired pneumonia". Crit. Care Med.. DOI:10.1097/CCM.0b013e318194b021. PMID 19114916. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Holm A, Pedersen SS, Nexoe J, et al. (July 2007). "Procalcitonin versus C-reactive protein for predicting pneumonia in adults with lower respiratory tract infection in primary care". Br J Gen Pract 57 (540): 555–60. PMID 17727748. PMC 2099638. [e]
- ↑ Müller B, Harbarth S, Stolz D, et al. (2007). "Diagnostic and prognostic accuracy of clinical and laboratory parameters in community-acquired pneumonia". BMC Infect. Dis. 7: 10. DOI:10.1186/1471-2334-7-10. PMID 17335562. PMC 1821031. Research Blogging.
- ↑ Brunkhorst FM, Al-Nawas B, Krummenauer F, Forycki ZF, Shah PM (February 2002). "Procalcitonin, C-reactive protein and APACHE II score for risk evaluation in patients with severe pneumonia". Clin. Microbiol. Infect. 8 (2): 93–100. PMID 11952722. [e]
- ↑ Capelastegui A, España PP, Bilbao A, et al (September 2008). "Pneumonia: criteria for patient instability on hospital discharge". Chest 134 (3): 595–600. DOI:10.1378/chest.07-3039. PMID 18490403. Research Blogging.