French Revolution

The French Revolution (1789-1799), was the revolutionary episode in France that deposed the king and the aristocracy, and included a period of terror, in which thousands were killed or driven into exile. Britain declared war in 1793, and by 1799 Napoleon, a hero and product of the Revolution, became dictator. Debates on the values and meaning of the Revolution have shaped French politics and political thought. The Revolution had a major role in spreading republicanism, the rights of man, and modernity to Europe and the world.

History

Directory

The "Directory" was the government between November 1795 and November 1799. It consisted of a Directory of five men, one of whom was replaced annually, and two representative assemblies, the Five Hundred and the Ancients. The assemblies were elected nationwide by property owners. The assemblies wielded legislative power, and the Directory executive power, but there was no device to resolve deadlocks between them.

The Directory gave power to the more conservative forces remaining in France; they had taken advantage of the enormous changes 1789-95, including the breakup or religious and aristocratic estates. The Directory continued the "Thermidorian reaction," which followed the fall of Maximilien Robespierre and the Jacobins in July 1794. The moderate middle-class republicans, mostly from the upper middle class favored the Directory because it ended the power of the royalists on the right and the Jacobin on the left. The Directory repeatedly used armed force and intimidation to stay in power, and thus depended on its generals, who gained popularity.

In foreign affairs the wars against Britain, Austria, Prussia, and for a time Russia were undertaken to protect France, expand its ideals, and acquire cash to pay army, which became more and more powerful in internal affairs. Conquests created a screen of six satellite republics set up in Holland, Switzerland, and Italy, and Bonaparte's seizure of Egypt. Prussia and Spain made peace, but Britain remained hostile and plans were drawn for an invasion. Instead Napoleon invaded Egypt.

In domestic affairs the era of the Directory was characterized by large-scale corruption. The revolution had demoralized public life, especially in Paris and the major cities. Profiteering in business, graft in politics and bureaucracy, extravagance in luxuries, and vulgarity in morals and manners, were the marks of the new regime. Public finances remained disorganized, as the nation could not raise enough taxes to pay its expenses. Inflation was rampant. In the private sector prosperity was returning, especially in the rural areas where most Frenchmen lived. One Director, the Count de Barras, who clung to power throughout the period, was a flamboyant, ruthlessly self-seeking man of immense greed and licentiousness. In total contrast was Lazare Carnot, the patriotic "organizer of victory," who served as a Director from 1795 until September 1797, and was largely responsible for the successes of the French army and of the Italian campaign in 1796-1797. Senior officials included the highly talented Joseph Fouché, minister of police, and the Comte de Talleyrand, minister of foreign affairs. The election as director of abbé Emmanuel Sieyès in May 1799 brought in a powerful intellectual who realized the system was doomed and resolved to overthrow it.

The Directory lost legitimacy by the series of coups it engineered to control elections. The coup of Fructidor (September 1797) against the royalists was followed by the coup of Floréal (May 1798) against the Jacobins, and then by that of Prairial (June 1799) against both. Repeated use of armed intimidation dismayed republicans, particularly army officers who believed in republican ideas. The coups paved the way for the overthrow of the regime by Napoleon in 1799.

See also

• Maximilien Robespierre
• Napoleon

Bibliography

• Baker, Keith M. ed. The French Revolution and the Creation of Modern Political Culture (Oxford, 1987-94) vol 1: The Political Culture of the Old Regime, ed. K.M. Baker (1987); vol. 2: The Political Culture of the French Revolution, ed. C. Lucas (1988); vol. 3: The Transformation of Political Culture, 1789-1848, eds. F. Furet & M. Ozouf (1989); vol. 4: The Terror, ed. K.M. Baker (1994).
• Blanning, T.C.W. The French Revolutionary Wars 1787-1802 (1996).
• Doyle, William. The Oxford History of the French Revolution (1989). online edition excerpt and online search from Amazon.com
• Doyle, William. The French Revolution: A Very Short Introduction. (2001), 120pp; online edition
• Englund, Steven. Napoleon: A Political Life. (2004). 575 pages; the best (and most advanced) political biography; thin on military
• Fremont-Barnes, Gregory. ed. The Encyclopedia of the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History (ABC-CLIO: 3 vol 2006)
• Furet, François. The French Revolution, 1770-1814 (1996)
• Furet, François and Mona Ozouf, eds. A Critical Dictionary of the French Revolution (1989), 1120pp; long essays by scholars; conservative perspective; stress on history of ideas excerpt and online search from Amazon.com
• Griffith, Paddy. The Art of War of Revolutionary France 1789-1802, (1998); 304 pp;
• Jones, Colin. The Longman Companion to the French Revolution (1989)
• Jones, Colin.The Great Nation: France from Louis XV to Napoleon (2002)
• Kates, Gary. The French Revolution (2nd ed. 2005), 308pp; essays by scholars; excerpts and online search from Amazon.com
• Lefebvre, Georges. The French Revolution (2 vol 1957) classic Marxist synthesis. excerpt and online search from Amazon.com
• Neely, Sylvia. A Concise History of the French Revolution (2008)
• Palmer, Robert R. The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760-1800. (2 vol 1959), highly influential comparative history; vol 1 online
• Paxton, John. Companion to the French Revolution (1987), hundreds of short entries.
• Rothenberg, Gunther E. "The Origins, Causes, and Extension of the Wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, Vol. 18, No. 4, (Spring, 1988), pp. 771-793 in JSTOR
• Rude, George F. and Harvey J. Kaye.Revolutionary Europe, 1783-1815 (2000), scholarly survey
• Schroeder, Paul. The Transformation of European Politics, 1763-1848. 1996; Thorough coverage of diplomatic history; hostile to Napoleon; online edition
• Schwab, Gail M., and John R. Jeanneney, eds. The French Revolution of 1789 and Its Impact (1995) online edition
• Scott, Samuel F. and Barry Rothaus. Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution, 1789-1799 (2 vol 1984), short essays by scholars
• Schama, Simon. Citizens. A Chronicle of the French Revolution (1989), highly readable narrative by scholar
• Sutherland, D.M.G. France 1789–1815. Revolution and Counter-Revolution (1985)

External links

• detailed bibliography from Colin Jones, The Great Nation (2002)