Pulse oximetry
Pulse oximetry is a non-invasive method which allows health care providers to monitor the oxygenation of a patient's blood.
A sensor is placed on a relatively thin part of the patient's anatomy, usually a fingertip or earlobe, or in the case of a neonate, across a foot, and red and infrared light is passed from one side to the other. Changing absorbance of each of the two wavelengths is measured, allowing determination of the absorbances due to the pulsing arterial blood alone, factoring out venous blood, skin, bone, muscle, fat, and even (in most cases) fingernail polish. Based upon the ratio of changing absorbances of the red and infrared light caused by the difference in color between oxygen-bound (bright red) and unbound (dark red or in severe cases blue) hemoglobin in the blood, a measure of oxygenation (the percent of hemoglobin molecules bound with oxygen molecules) can be made.
Indication
This is useful in any setting where a patient's oxygenation is unstable, including intensive care, operating, recovery, emergency and hospital ward settings, pilots in unpressurized aircraft, for assessment of any patient's oxygenation, and determining the effectiveness of or need for supplemental oxygen. Assessing a patient's need for oxygen is often referred to as the ultimate vital sign; no human life thrives in the absence of oxygen. Although pulse oximetry is used to monitor oxygenation, it cannot determine the metabolism of oxygen, or the amount of oxygen being used by a patient. For this purpose, it is necessary to also measure carbon dioxide (CO2) levels. It is possible that it can also be used to detect abnormalities in ventilation. However, the use of pulse oximetry to detect hypoventilation is impaired with the use of supplemental oxygen, as it is only when patients breathe room air that abnormalities in respiratory function can be detected reliably with its use. Therefore, the routine administration of supplemental oxygen may be unwarranted if the patient is able to maintain adequate oxygenation in room air, since it can result in hypoventilation going undetected.
History
Pulse Oximetry was developed by Nellcor Incorporated in 1982, and introduced into the US operating room market in 1983. Prior to its introduction, a patient's oxygenation was determined by a painful arterial blood gas, a single point measure which typically took a minimum of 20-30 minutes processing by a laboratory. (In the absence of oxygenation, damage to the brain starts in 5 minutes with brain death in another 10-15 minutes). In the US alone, approximately $2 billion was spent annually on this measurement. With the introduction of pulse oximetry, a non-invasive, continuous measure of patient's oxygenation was possible, revolutionizing the practice of anesthesia and greatly improving patient safety. Prior to its introduction, studies in anesthesia journals estimated US patient mortality as a consequence of undetected hypoxemia at 2,000 to 10,000 deaths per year, with no known estimate of patient morbidity.
By 1987, the standard of care for the administration of a general anesthetic in the US included pulse oximetry. From the operating room, the use of pulse oximetry rapidly spread throughout the hospital, first in the recovery room, and then into the various intensive care units. Pulse oximetry was of particular value in the neonatal unit where the patients do not thrive with inadequate oxygenation, but also can be blinded with too much oxygen. Furthermore, obtaining an arterial blood gas from a neonatal patient is extremely difficult.
Limitations
This is a measure solely of oxygenation, not of ventilation, and is not a substitute for blood gases checked in a laboratory as it gives no indication of carbon dioxide levels, blood pH, or sodium bicarbonate levels. The metabolism of oxygen can be readily measured by monitoring expired CO2.
Falsely low readings may be caused by hypoperfusion of the extremity being used for monitoring (often due to the part being cold or from vasoconstriction secondary to the use of vasopressor agents); incorrect sensor application; highly calloused skin; and movement (such as shivering), especially during hypoperfusion. To ensure accuracy, the sensor should return a steady pulse and/or pulse waveform. Falsely high or falsely low readings will occur when hemoglobin is bound to something other than oxygen. In cases of carbon monoxide poisoning, the falsely high reading may delay the recognition of hypoxemia (low blood oxygen level). Cyanide poisoning can also give a false high reading.
It should be noted that Pulse oximetry only reads the percentage of bound hemoglobin. It can be bound to other gasses such as carbon monoxide and still read high even though the patient is hypoxic.