Bipedalism
Bipedalism is the condition of having or using only two feet for locomotion[1]. This form of movement is found in a few groups of animals on Earth. Throughout the course of evolutionary history, the use of bipedal movement came forward several times as an adaptation, including at what many consider to be an influential point in human evolution. The particular selective pressures that acted to bring bipedalism to the forefront time and time again are most likely diverse and unique to each group for which this type of locomotion was expressed. However, the prevalence of bipedal movement in animals both extant and extinct shows that this form of locomotion is sometimes advantageous.
The use of bipedal movement is thought to be a key element in human evolutionary history, as it is part of what separates humans and their ancestors from the other Great Apes. By virtue of similar musculoskeletal organization of human and ape bodies it is possible to trace common ancestry. Humans today bear many anatomical resemblances to their closest relatives. Residual anatomical traits that include but are not limitied to dorsally-placed scapulae and a wide range of motion in the shoulder, arm, and wrist point to an origin of bipedal locomotion that is very recent in evolutionary history of the Genus Homo. These residual traits suggest suspensory adaptations in the forelimbs of a primarily terrestrial group of animals that usually bear the bulk of its mass on their hindlimbs.
Species Displaying Bipedal Movement
There are many species on Earth that use bipedal movement as their primary means of terrestrial locomotion, and also some that can use bipedal movement when pressed to escape danger.
Birds
In nearly every species of bird, a form of terrestrial bipedal movement shows itself. Because of their wings many birds do not use bipedalism as their primary means of locomotion in life, but when they land they hop or walk on two feet. Birds whose lives are spent in a mostly terrestrial capacity such as chickens, kiwi birds, and larger forms like ostriches and emus have reduced wings and larger, stronger legs. These birds are often highly-efficient bipeds, able to run at high speeds and relatively agile for their size. Ostriches have been known to run at speeds in excess of 40 mph (65 km/h)when chased by predators.
Birds are thought to be descendants of theropod dinosaurs, and are thought to have split from that lineage before the event that cause the extinction of much of land vertebrates 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period.
Dinosaurs
The type of bipedalism seen in birds is similar to that seen in bipedal dinosaurs, such as the Tyrannosaurus rex. A recent study that used chickens as analogs for dinosaur locomotion showed it was possible to change the weight-bearing bones in the legs to a more robust, non-avian dinosaur-like form through adding weights to the back of a chicken.(Reference will be added) The weight added was to symbolize a tail, which changed the form of the femur of the birds in the experiment.
Thus, dinosaur bipedal locomotion may be similar to that of birds, but the addition of the tail is a key morphological trait that changes it slightly.
Lizards
Several extant species of lizard walk or run on their hind legs when trying to escape predators. Lophognathus longirostris is an example that is closely related to the frill-necked lizards, and runs on its back legs to gain speed and agility over short distances. Physignathus lesueurii, another relative, is capable of running for short distances on the surface of water.
Primates
Genus Homo
Anatomical Correlates of Bipedalism in Humans and Recent Human Ancestors
Through looking at the osteology of humans and their close relatives in the fossil record, a few key anatomical traits for the particular bipedalism associated with humans have come forward. A combination of these traits makes it possible for humans to walk upright and allows scientists to diagnose whether a fossil likely used bipedal movement or not.
Medially-Angled Femur
One trait that is often used to diagnose bipedal movement in hominins is the angle of the femur. In humans this bone angles toward the mid-line of the body, allowing for better balancing when walking or running and the load of the weight to be better distributed. When balanced on the distal (distant) end of the bone on the medial and lateral condyles, the angle created between the it and the flat surface it is balanced on is around 10 degrees. This bi-condylar angle is nearly non-existent in chimpanzees, and in the few fossilized femora that have been unearthed this angle has been helpful to show some form of bipedalism.
In addition, the medial condyle on the distal end of the femur of a human-like biped is considerably larger than in other extant apes. This is an adaption that increases the stability of the knee joint and prevents the distal end of the femur from slipping out of alignment.