Japanese English
Japanese English (JE) refers to the forms of English mainly used by non-native speakers in Japan. This may include English learned as a foreign language, its fashionable use in the media and advertising (often called Engrish), or the use of English as a working language in certain institutions such as research centres or publications such as the Japan Times.
When used for a communicative purpose, such as in English-language newspapers, this variety is typically very similar to American English in vocabulary, grammar and spelling. However, there are a number of words used in JE, which either originate in Japan or have developed a separate meaning: for example, prefecture to mean a political district is an English word which is not used in native English-speaking nations. Police box is always used as the translation for 交番 kouban, but in fact this is a local police station, rather than a callbox specifically for contacting the police, as in the UK. Additionally, many English words exist in Japanese, but these loanwords are considered part of its vocabulary, just as many Japanese words such as karate form part of English.
More commonly, English in Japan takes the form of what is colloquially known as Engrish, a term whose spelling mimics the supposed Japanese inability to articulate the difference between English [r] and [l]. The acceptability of this term is debatable; many Japanese may consider it derogatory, while others may not. It is most widely used by English speakers as a humourous slang term. Furthermore, it is sometimes used to refer to other versions of English in East Asia, e.g. as spoken by Chinese or Korean user of English.
An alternative term someties applied to JE is Japlish. Since Jap is racist English slang for a Japanese person, many authors may avoid this term. Alternatively, it has been used to refer to English loanwords in Japanese itself (和製英語 wasei-eigo - literally 'made in Japan English') - words not used in a way that English speakers would readily understand.[2]
Origin of the term 'Engrish'
The term originates from the fact that Japanese and a few other East Asian languages do not distinguish the phonemes /r/ and /l/ as in English - thus it could be described as an Anglocentric reference, identifying a difference as a deficiency relative to English. Writers attempting to render JE on paper tend to either eliminate the letter l and replace it with r, or else mix them randomly, producing such words as rice for lice. Furthermore, Japanese users of English sometimes mix up the two, leading to mis-spellings in English.
Japanese has an /r/ phoneme which is phonetically often similar to the pronunciation of t or d in American English, where these occur before an unstressed syllable: e.g. city or butter. This sound is known to phoneticians as a flap and transcribed as [ɾ] but is only one of several variants of r found in Japanese. Another is the similar alveolar lateral flap [ɺ]. Some speakers will also pronounce it as a [d] in word-initial position, and some forms may be perceived by English speakers as an [l]. The confusion arises because phonetically the Japanese /r/ is articulated similar to the prounciation of English [l], but phonologically serves as an /r/. Therefore, misinterpretations involving /r/ and /l/ may be as much due to listeners' misperceptions as speakers' approximations.
English language learning in Japan
English is a compulsory subject in Japanese schools from the age of 11; students who enter university are also obliged to take an English course in their first year, assessed through the TOEIC exam.[3] However, although the Japanese government has issued guidelines requiring a focus on real-life communication skills,[4] most teaching is still very 'traditional': a focus on learning grammar rules and on reading the language,[5] with Japanese as the medium of instruction used by almost exclusively Japanese native-speaking teachers. This means that exposure to native English can be limited for many learners, who may have few opportunities to practice listening and speaking.[6]
Intentional 'Engrish'
'Engrish' is usually accidental, but sometimes its use is deliberate. Foreign branding, for example, serves the same purpose it does in the West: exotic embellishment. For the same reasons that a Chinese character or a Japanese Kanji tattoo seems "exotic" to many in the West, Asians may appreciate English words or gibberish for its aesthetic appeal alone; straight lines, frequent symmetry, and the unembellished curves of Latinate letters may all appeal to Asian senses of aesthetics and balance.
Wasei-eigo
Engrish can also refer to the Japanese pronunciation of English loanwords or a Japanese dialect with a number of English loanwords. Because Japanese has only five vowels, and few consonant clusters, English loanwords are often pronounced in a manner that sounds unusual and even humorous to English speakers. For example, in spoken Japanese, guitarist Eric Clapton becomes エリック・クラプトン Erikku Kuraputon, Australia becomes オーストラリア Ōsutoraria, and "McDonald's" becomes マクドナルド Makudonarudo, which is often further abbreviated to マクド Makudo or マック Makku. Japanese uses over 600 imported English words in common speech, sometimes in abbreviated form. Examples are ハンカチ hankachi for "handkerchief", フォーク fōku for "fork", テーブル tēburu for "table", プロレス puroresu for "pro wrestling", and so on. The more outlandish and humorous the pronunciation change is, the more likely it is to be considered Engrish. Even fairly logical English loanwords in Japanese will often sound foreign and unintelligible to an English speaker, such as the use of チーズ chīzu for "cheese" when taking a photograph. These pronunciation changes are linguistically systematic and are completely unrelated to the speaker's intelligence.
Engrish was once a frequent occurrence in consumer electronics product manuals, with phrases such as "to make speed up find up out document", or "Gas is maybe poison is" (for "Gasses may be poisonous"), but it is less frequent today. Another source of poor translation is unchecked machine translation, such as that from the Babelfish service or Google Language Tools. Engrish is often created by translating a phrase using the Babelfish service or Google Language Tools to translate something into Japanese, then copying and pasting the Japanese text and translating it back into English.
Pop culture
Engrish features prominently in Japanese pop culture, as some young Japanese people consider the English language to be highly fashionable. Japanese has assimilated a great deal of vocabulary from the English language, and many popular Japanese songs and television themes feature disjointed phrases in English amongst the mostly Japanese lyrics. Japanese marketing firms helped to create this popularity, and have subsequently created an enormous array of advertisements, products, and clothing marked with English phrases that seem highly amusing or inexplicably bizarre to a native English speaker. These new English terms are generally short-lived, as they are used more fashionably than meaningfully. Many times English is just used in advertising or on products as an attempt to look modern and is not actually an attempt to communicate.
Footnotes
- ↑ Parking ticket in British English usually means a notice of illegal parking handed down by a traffic warden; the term parking meter ticket or pay and display ticket would be used in reference to a parking meter machine.
- ↑ For example, in Murray (1999), which includes a section on wasei-eigo. One example of this is desuku (デスク) from English desk, which is actually a title for a journalist. In Japanese, job titles can be used as forms of address, with the honorific -san (-さん). It is therefore acceptable to refer to a journalist, for example, as desuku-san (literally 'Mr Desk'). These words are subject to Japanese grammar just as a native item would be; e.g. they can form compounds with Japanese words, and the meaning may differ, as in famikon (ファミコン) 'family computer', meaning 'games console'.
- ↑ Students tested in the Teaching of English for International Communication exam are assessed in listening and reading comprehension, each carrying 50% of the final mark.
- ↑ Sakui & Gaies (1999: 488).
- ↑ Sakui (2004: 156-157).
- ↑ Many prospective students also attend 学習 juku (cram schools) in the evenings to study English. Teachers in these schools are often undergraduate students.
References
- Murray G (1999). 13 Secrets for Speaking Fluent Japanese. Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 4-7700-2302-2.
- Sakui K (2004) 'Wearing two pairs of shoes: language teaching in Japan.' ELT Journal 58(2): 155-163.
- Sakui K & Gaies SJ (1999) 'Investigating Japanese learners’ beliefs about language learning.' System 27: 473-492.
See also
External links
- Engrish.com - many examples of Engrish
- InnocentEnglish.com — more examples of Engrish