English phonemes

The sounds and their spellings

A phoneme is a distinct unit of sound; spellings are ways of writing these sounds. English phonemes have different spellings depending on a word's provenance and history. This is a list of the phonemes, with their International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) symbols, and all their spellings (graphemes).

In all cases, a number of example words are shown; where those examples are few, it is because the spelling is rare and they are the only ones.

The pronunciations are those of the language's two main varieties: American English (AmE), where r is pronounced before a consonant, and British English (BrE), where it is not.

The áccents on bold example words indicate stressed vowels and their pronunciation. An equals sign shows homophones, with words in italics suggesting meaning: sêen saw = scêne scenic, drama, crime. The bullet (●) represents any consonant. An asterisk before a word indicates that it is a respelling to show pronunciation, and thus wrongly (*róngly) spelt.

Vowels and diphthongs

IPA /i:/ ê êa êe ê●e êi ìê aê oê ì ỳ êỳ êo

ê: bê, mê, récipê, catástrophê, Penélopê, Lêthê, hypërbolê, mêthane, sêrum, dêvious, mêdia, rêtail, dêmon, Êly, mêtre BrE distance, poem

êa: sêa water, lêave, hêat, sêat, bêat hit, nêat, êasy, mêal, drêam, têam, hêath

êe: sêe vision frêe, trêe, fêel, whêel, grêed, fêed, spêed, bêet sugar êel, rêel

ê●e: Pêter, scêne, êven, fêver, mêter all AmE, BrE machine only complête, compête

êi: after c: percêive, recêive, recêipt (-êit), concêit, concêive, cêiling; after w: wêird, wêir (but: wìêld); sêize, Shêila, Nêil, Nêill, O´Nêill

ìê: before v: belìêve, relìêve, grìêve

aê: stressed, from Greek (BrE; AmE has ê alone): Aêschylus, encyclopaêdia; unstressed in Latin plurals: nébulae, nôvae, fŏrmulae

oê: BrE (AmE has ê alone) from Greek: Oêdipus, amoêba, foêtus, oêstrogen, oenólogy, subpoêna

ì: from French: machìne, Christìne, magazìne, nìche, elìte

ỳ: normally unstressed: fúnny, sílly, crâzy, lâzy, êasy, wítty, dextérity, Yvétte, Yvónne; stressed: Lỳón, Lỳse, Mervỳna

êỳ: unstressed: nôsey, pôsey, láckey, jóckey, balôney, álley, Hàrvey

êo: pêople

IPA /ɪ/ í ý u o e ’ eí íe

í: sít, fít, sítter, fítter, fítting, bít, líd, híd, bíd, stíll, bíll = Bíll, Wílliam, fíll, línt, tínt, wríst, pín, tílt, míddle, ínch, fíg, bíg

ý: týpical, sýnthesis, sýnagogue, sýmptom, cýst, mýstic, mýth, trýst, Dýlan

u: business, busy

o: women

e: unstressed: Jôneses, Bíggses, Báxes, táxes, cópses, fléxes

’: unstressed: Jônes’s, Bíggs’s, Báx’s

eí: unstressed -feít: còunterfeít, fŏrfeít, sürfeít

íe: unstressed: pàrtíes, fámilíes, lórríes, cárríes, cárríed, márríed, pólicíes

IPA /e/ é éa ai u

é: béd, Néd, wét, sét, pén, hén, méss, dréss, pép, séven, eléven, Dévon, Édward, Téd, bréd breed, cléver, éver, évery, néver, tén, ténth, dén, crést

éa: déath, bréath, bréast, déad, héad, bréad food, héaven, thréat, thréaten

ai: said (*séd)

u: bury ground (= bérry fruit)

IPA /æ/ á

fát, cát, sát, mát, Ánthony, ánt, bág, dágger, fán, pán, áttic, spásm, cáttle, brásh, ásh

redundant i in: pláit

redundant e in Gáelic Scotland = Gállic France (cf. Gâelic Ireland)

This sound is never final.

American English uses a long version of á instead of BrE à, except in fàther, Coloràdo, Chicàgo, pajàmas (BrE pyjàmas) càlm, quàlm, bàlm, àlms or when an r follows.

IPA /ɑ/ à àr àl ó

Words with à in both British and American English are:

à: fàther, Chicàgo, Coloràdo, AmE pajàmas BrE pyjàmas, Tuvàlu and Baràck Obàma, where, however, some BrE speakers instead say bárrack army

al: (silent l) càlm, bàlm, quàlm, àlms

and whenever an r (always heard in AmE, silent final or before a consonant in BrE) follows:

àr: màr= Màrr, bàr, càr, vàrnish, pàrk, màrvel, stàr, scàr, bizàrre, hàrm, àrm, fàr, càrt, fàrmer, scàr, pàrt, màrk, stàrch, pàrch, màrch, hàrd, gàrden, làrge

The following are pronounced à in southern BrE (most with á in northern BrE), a long á in AmE:

ā: Irān, Irāq, cān’t, grānt, āfter, crāft, lāugh, grāph, āunt, dānce

before s: pāst, fāst, cāstle, māster, clāss, ghāstly, nāsty, grāss, lāst, plāster, cāst, pāss, tāsk, blāst, āsk

before th: rāther, pāth, bāth, rāther, lāther

āl: with silent l: hālf, cālf, hālve

ó in AmE is pronounced à, as in the next section:

IPA /ɒ/ ó

BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with à.

(Thus AmE pronounces the first words of Lós Ángeles and Làs Vègas the same: this is confusing for BrE speakers, who are as likely to say Lás Vègas, like láss girl, or, perhaps more commonly, "Lós Vègas", like the BrE lóss lose.)

ó: hót, gót, spót, bóther, dóg, dóll, nót, stóp, lóst, óften, slób, slóppy, cróss, nód, ódd, shóne, óff, tóffee

ough as -óff: cóugh, tróugh

a after ẁ: ẁant, ẁas, ẁash, ẁasp, ẁarren, ẁander, ẁarrant

after ẁh: ẁhat

after sẁ: sẁap, sẁan, sẁab, sẁamp

after qù: qùantity, qùantum, qùad, qùash, sqùash, sqùad, sqùabble

IPA /ɔ/ å åw åu åugh ŏr ŏre ŏrps ŏor ŏa ŏur ŏugh

The r is silent in BrE before a consonant, but sounded in AmE.

å: wåter, ålso

before lk: chålk, tålk, stålk, wålk, bålk

before ll: åll, fåll, tåll, båll

before lt: ålter, fålter, Wålter, hålt, althôugh

åw: såw, see, tool, åwful, bråwl, cråwl, fåwn colour, deer, grovel, bråwn, clåw, påw animal, swårm, wårm, wårn, wård, jåw, Shåw, måw

åu: cåuse, påuse, fåult, exhåust, fåun god

åugh: cåught, tåught, åught, nåughty, Wåugh

ŏr: ŏr either, fŏr, nŏr, cóndŏr, fŏrt, pŏrt, sŏrt, shŏrt, whŏrl

ŏre: ŏre metal, cŏre centre, gŏre, pŏre skin, scŏre, sŏre pain, bŏre tedium, hole, ignŏre, deplŏre, restŏre, whŏre (h-), mŏre extra

ŏrps: cŏrps army

ŏor: dŏor, pŏor broke, unfortunate, flŏor, bŏor rude, mŏor land

ŏa: brŏad, abrŏad

ŏar: ŏar boat, bŏar animal, sŏar fly

ŏur: fŏur, pŏur, mŏurn, tŏurnament

ŏugh: fŏught, bŏught, sŏught, brŏught

IPA /ʊ/ ù oò oùl où o

BrE only: AmE replaces this sound with a stressed schwa, /ə/.

ù: pùt, fùll, pùsh, bùsh, bùll, pùll, cùshion

oò: goòd, woòd, soòt, foòt, woòl

oùl: shoùld, coùld, woùld

où: poùffe

o: woman, wolf

IPA /(j)u:/ û ûe û●e ûi oû oûgh oô eŵ ŵ o

The long û grapheme repesents two phonemes, /uː/ and /juː/, with various distributions on either side of the Atlantic. For a full discussion of this, see the article on the letter U.

û: gnû, Stû, flû ill, gùrû, êmû, pûny, Mûnich, jûry, Trûdi, dûbious, rûling, mûtiny, nûtrient, trûth, Rûth

ûe: flûe chimney, trûe, blûe colour, glûe, cûe drama, billiards = queûe wait (*kyû)

û•e: Jûne, jûte, flûte, tûne, dûpe, Drûse, fûneral

ûi: frûit, jûice, slûice, crûise

oû: groûp, soûp, coûp hit (= coô)

oûgh: throûgh

oô: shoô, soôn, foôd, broôd, foôl, schoôl, toôl, moôn, troôp, loôp, droôp, loôse, choôse, groôvy, loôt, toô also, much, coô bird

eŵ: neŵ, neŵs, vieŵ, cheŵ, revieŵ, Jeŵ, bleŵ blow

ŵ: unstressed in Rŵánda

ŵo: tŵo 2

o: do, who (*hû) shoe, lose, move, prove, to particle

IPA /ʌ/ ú oú ò òo

BrE only: in AmE, it is replaced by a stressed schwa, /ə/, while in demotic speech in northern England, it is replaced by ù, /ʊ/.

ú: nút, cúp, slút, túck, spún, fún, dúst, rúst, búst, sún, múck, súck, dúck, BrE cúrrent

oú: doúble, troúble, soúthern; (-úff:) toúgh, enoúgh, roúgh

ò after w: wònder, wòn win, BrE wòrry

before n: frònt, dòne, nòne, òne 1 (invisible w-: = wòn)

before -ve: lòve, shòve, glòve, dòve

before -ther: òther, anòther, mòther, bròther, smòther (cf. bóther)

òo: before d: flòod, blòod

IPA /ɜ:/ ër ëar ïr ür ÿr ör öur

As with the preceding, this sound does not exist in American English, being replaced by a stressed schwa, always with -r sounded; the r is silent in BrE and the schwa lengthened to /ɜː/.

ër: wëre, përson, vërve, vërdant, sërvant, jërk, fërn, hërd, tërn bird

ëar: hëard, lëarn, yëarn, hëarse, rehëarse, ëarl, pëarl, dëarth

ïr: fïrst, bïrd, dïrt, gïrl, quïrk, ïrk, stïr, whïrr, dïrt, shïrt, skïrt, flïrt, cïrcus, cïrcle, cïrcuit, bïrth, gïrth, fïrm, fïr

ür: bürn, türn round, absürd, chürch, Türk, fürtive, blürt, spürt, hürt, nürse, AmE cürrent (BrE cúrrent), cürtsey

ÿr: mÿrtle, mÿrrh, Bÿrd

ör: only after w: wörk, wörse, wörst, wörm, wörd, AmE wörry

öur: in -jöurn- and cöurt-: jöurney, jöurnal, adjöurn, cöurteous, cöurtesy

IPA /ə/, the schwa sound

An example of schwa (*shwà) is the neutral grunt which begins the word abòut (*əbòut). A shorter version of /ɜ/, never stressed, it can be spelt a, e, o or, less often, u, with or without a following r (which is silent in BrE if not followed by another vowel). It also appears as y in Béryl, Síbyl and síbyllîne - and it can be invisible before r and l.

First syllable: agô ahéad abòut again (-é-) abòve upón and in names beginning Mac- such as MacNêill - or McNêill (invisible version)

Second syllable: ígnorance pébble doùble Chîna sêater víctor bürsar quérulous lêmur fêmur vísion nâtion (-sion and -tion always have schwa) Cânaan (double a) dógs’re (informal use of apostrophe)

Third syllable: ígnorance decîder Éxeter Pámela precürsor exémplar ridículous invâsion

Fourth syllable: América Tanzanìa exécutor cálculator álligator unbelìêver abnegâtion

Fifth syllable: preváricator prevaricâtion extërminator

Invisible before liquid sounds r and l: cãre (which rhymes with prâyer) lãir (which is a one-syllable version of lâyer) ŏil (which rhymes with lŏyal) whîle (*wîyəl) fâil (*fâyəl) sêal (*sêeyəl) knêel down = Nêil, Nêill names (*nêeyəl)

IPA /eɪ/ â âi ây â●e âe âigh âu eâ èy èi èigh è●e

In Yorkshire dialect this is pronounced as a pure /e/.

â: grâvy pâcy grâcious nâval navy nâvy ânal zâny stâble crâving bâgel potâto râzor BrE vâpour AmE vâpor

â●e: sâme gâme câme sâve bâse trâce pâce crâve lâser hâver râve nâvel stomach Jâmes hâzel pâge nâme tâme fâme flâme hâte gâte fâte lâte wâde câve brâve stâge grâde phâse time, moon = fâze confuse jâde fâde brâke speed lâne road bâne mâne horse gâte open hâte loathe

âi before l: nâil âil quâil fâil wâil tâil tâilor Tâylor before n: pâin stâin grâin trâin brâin drâin lâin lie detâin retâin remâin Câin mâin chief Mâine

before m: âim clâim mâim clâim âid mâid râid wâif mâize Crâig Hâig Hâigh (= Hâgue) gâit walk trâit trâitor

ây final: dây sây plây jây delây wây trây brây hây prây prayer slây kill

before -er: lâyer slâyer (but not prãyer)

âe: Gâelic Ireland Ísrâel mâelstrom phâeton

âigh: strâight Hâight Ashbury

âu: gâuge

eâ: greât breâk pieces, off

èy: thèy grèy Lèyton whèy fèy prèy on

èi: vèin vèil bèige rèin ride

èigh final: invèigh nèigh slèigh snow

before t: wèight frèight èight

è●e: crèpe

IPA /əʊ/ ô ôa ôe ô•e ôu ôugh ôw ew

In Yorkshire dialect this is pronounced as a pure /o/.

ô with Latin-style suffixes: hôkum fôcus hôcus-pôcus

plus y, etc.: pôny hôly Tôny dôzy rôly-pôly nôsey bôgey phôney (or phony) Jôdie Jôni BrE côsy AmE côzy

final: sô therefore nô not gô frô lô behold cô-

before -ld: ôld côld gôld hôld sôld

also: grôss pôll vote

ôh: ôh dôh sôh music

ôa: before t: gôat côat ôat stôat bôat flôat

before k: clôak ôak

before d: gôad tôad rôad

before f: ôaf lôaf

before m: rôam wander (= Rôme) glôam

ôe final: tôe dôe Côe fôe hôe Jôe Pôe rôe wôe Defôe flôe ice

ô●e: hôme vôte nôte bôde explôde nôde tône lône cône pôle wood jôke dôze Rôme city rôte routine = wrôte write nôse expôse brôke spôke brôken spôken tôken

plus r: ôver Dôver clôver grôcer

oû: sôul

oûgh: dôugh bread althôugh thôugh

ôw: sôw seed knôw knowledge slôw grôw bestôw flôw water Ôwen môw lôw down crôw thrôw glôw

ew: sew needle

IPA /aɪ/ î îe î●e îgh îg ŷ ŷ●e ŷe eî

î: Î me hî greeting crîsis Îsis Chrîst fîery wîry shîny tîny lîme sublîme

unstressed: álibî nûclêî fránchîse mërchandîse

îe final: vîe lîe dîe dead tîe

î●e: îce nîce tîme fîne lîne slîme twîce lîce rîpe swîpe smîle stîle field

îgh: final: hîgh up sîgh nîgh

before t: tîght frîght brîght nîght plîght sîght

îg before n: sîgn resîgn desîgn

aî in place names: Caîro Thaîland Dubaî Sînaî

ŷ: flŷ bŷ whŷ trŷ rhŷme spŷ drŷ sprŷ relŷ denŷ defŷ stŷ pig, eye

from -îe before -íng: vŷing lŷing dŷing tŷing (from vîe lîe dîe tîe, cf. trŷing crŷing)

ŷ●ê: tŷpe stŷle mode

ŷe: stŷe eye eŷe sight aŷe yes dŷe colour

eî: heîght Fáhrenheît seîsmic O’Reîlly feîsty BrE eîther BrE neîther

IPA /aʊ/ òu òugh òw àù ào

òu: òut fòul bad blòuse tròusers clòud thòu clòut pròud wòund wind gròund mòunt mòuntain jòust fòund dòubt (*dòut) lòuse insect

òugh final: bòugh tree slòugh swamp = Slòugh town BrE plòugh

òw final: hòw nòw còw vòw wòw bòw down sòw pig AmE plòw

before n: bròwn tòwn dòwn fròwn cròwn dròwn renòwn

before l: fòwl bird òwl tròwel

before y: dòwry Lòwry Bòwery fròwsty

àù, from German, etc.: àùtobàhn sàùerkràùt Sàùdi Bíssàù Nàssàù

ào from Chinese, etc.: Mào Tào Jào Làos country

IPA /ɔɪ/ ŏi ŏy

ŏi before n: jŏin cŏin rejŏin lŏin

before l: fŏil bŏil tŏil

before ce: rejŏice vŏice

before st: clŏister hŏist jŏist

before t: quŏits BrE gŏitre AmE gŏiter

ŏy final: bŏy jŏy tŏy deplŏy Rŏy Trŏy destrŏy

before st: ŏyster lŏyal rŏyal

IPA /ɪə(r)/ êar êer êre ìêr êir

êar: êar hêar ear nêar têar cry fêar Pêarson drêary wêary blêary

êer: bêer quêer vêer lêer venêer êerie

êre: hêre there mêre revêre wê’re we are

ìêr: tìêr seats frontìêr piêrce

êir: wêird wêir water

IPA /eə(r)/ ãre ãir ãyr ãyer éãr ére

ãre: fãre money, food spãre shãre pãre cut bãre nude cãre wãres goods stãre look

ãr: before y: wãry vãry scãry Mãry

before i: vâriable shãring

ãir: final: ãir breathe hãir fãir reasonable, fun lãir stãir step flãir

before y: fãiry hãiry

ãyr: Ãyrshire

ãyer: prãyer

éãr: béãr animal, tolerate, carry téãr rip wéãr clothes péãr fruit

ére: whére place thére here ére before

IPA /(j)ʊə(r)/ ûre ûr eûr eŵr

This sound could just as well be shown as ùr, but the u is clearly cognate with other final-mute-e words such as Jûne.

ûre: pûre cûre abjûre lûre

ûr: dûring dûrable cûrable pûrest fûry fûrious jûror jûry court Ûrals Arctûrus Epicûrus mûral

eûr: neûron neurótic Eûrope

eŵr: Jeŵry Jew Neŵry

IPA /aɪə(r)/ îr îar îer îre ŷr ŷre

îr: fîry wîry îrony Mîra Hîram choîr

îre: fîre wîre desîre mîre spîre îre irâte

îar: lîar lie brîar

îer: fîery

ŷr before a: gŷrate Mŷra tŷrant

before o: gŷroscope pyromânia pyrotéchnic tŷro

ŷre: lŷre music pŷre

Consonants

IPA /p/ p pp

p: píll, pùt, pâper, hôped, cláp, píp, stóp, úp, soûp, droôp, wêep, peêp, híp

pp: pépper, stópped, hópped, clápping, rípper, ápple, rípple, púppy, cópper

IPA /b/ b bb

b: bŏy, bâke, bîcycle, bâsin, mób, bàrber, snób, snúb, húsband, róbin, bíscuit, bénd, bāth, ablâze, âble, troúble, mâybe, ôbôe

bb: rúbber, ríbbon, ábbey, ébb, róbber, dúbbed, rábbit, Bóbby, búbble

IPA /t/ t tt bt pt ed th

t: tín, tén, toô, trâin, tót, trîte, tríp, tâste, déft, bít, hát, côat, bôat, àrt, tàrt, flïrt, átmosphere

tt: bétter, létter, cáttle, báttle, bóttle, ráttle, bétting, sétting, kéttle, néttle, cátty, bátty, tátty, Bétty, pótty, atténtion

ed, inflexion of past tense verbs after unvoiced consonants: āsked, slípped, hôped, áxed, hélped, chānced, kícked, stópped, lócked, cáshed, míxed, âped, grôssed

bt: dòubt, débt, súbtle

pt: recêipt, ptàrmigan, Ptómely, pterodáctyl

th: Kathmandû, Ánthony (= Ántony, a less common variant, as in Màrk Ántony)

IPA /d/ d dd

d: dím, dénse, dîce, dúll, rêad, réad = réd, nêed, stéady, réady, héad, Êden, lâden, rámmed, fílled (ed not 't' after voiced sound, compare above)

dd: rúdder, ádder, ládder, rúdder, kídding, ríddance, Éddie, dóddle, gíddy

IPA /k/ k ck c cc ch cq q g kk

k: kíll, Kenneth, boòk, loòk, dàrk, mêek, pêak, àrk Noah, ínk, thínk, ránk

ck, not initial: báck, néck, síck, déck, píck, wíck, wícked, máckintosh, féckless, réckless, gécko, décker bus = Décker person, tick correct

c before back vowels a, o and u (and also in encephalîtis): cát animal, cán, còme, câter, cút, cárry, cãre, crâter, crâne, curve, cómmon, cót, confûse, cóntrary, contémporary, and finally: àrc, plástic, tíc twitch

cc pronounced 'k' only: sóccer, accrûe, occür, áccolade, and pronounced 'ks': áccident, áccess, accêde, cóccyx

ch: láchrymose, chŏrd, âche, écho, páchydërm

cq: acquîre, acquâint, acquiésce

q: Sádiq, Táriq, Qátar, qát drug

qu sounding like 'kw': quêen, requîre, quîet, quîte, quést, exquísite, líquid

qu as 'k' sound alone: líquor (*líkker), unìque (-êek), Jácqueline (*Jácklêen or = Jácklín)

g (for some speakers): léngth

kk: púkka, Dékker person

IPA /g/ g gg

g: dóg, gún, bíg, ángle, fínger, dângle, ôgle, pâgan, flágon, drágon, bôgus

gg: égg, bígger, nóggin, dágger, dígging, flágging, nágged, bógged, flógged

IPA /tʃ/ ch tch c

ch: choôse, cheêse, beêch tree = bêach sand, chóp, cheêr, lúnch, châse

final after r: lürch, përch, àrch, màrch = Màrch, besmïrch

tch: ítch, ítchy, fétch, pátch, ẁatch, dítch, wítch, scótch, kétchup, nótch, and from Russian, etc., Pétrovi(t)ch, Mikhaîlovi(t)ch, and other patronymics

initial only in a few imported names: Tchaikóvsky, Tchicaî

c in -ic ending of names from Serbian, etc.: Ivanísevic, Ivánovic, Pílic, Káradjic, Milósevic

IPA /dʒ/ j dj g dg gg

j: Jâne, jélly, Jáck, jôke, Jóhn, Jônes, Jím James, jërsey, jejeûne, jàr, ajàr, jêep, Jûlie, Julŷ, môjo, cajôle, rejéct, jíngle, jángle, júngle, jîbe

dj: adjúst, adjöurn, ádjective, ádjúnct, Djiboûti, Abidján

g before e: géntle, âge, râge, gênius, gërm, Gërmany, pígeon, dúngeon, stürgeon, Nigêria, genétic, géneral, géntle, págeant

before i: gîant, gínger, giráffe, gímcrack

before y: gyrâte, gŷroscope, gým gymnasium, gýpsum

dg before e: brídge, édge, hédge, bádger, bádge, búdge, fúdge, cúdgel, dódge, Hódges, lódger, fídget, mídget, dúdgeon, búdgerigar

before i: cádging lódging búdgie

before y: pódgy dódgy édgy púdgy

gg: exággerate

di: sôldier

du: ŏrdure

IPA /f/ f ff ph gh ft

f: fêel, frŷ, frêe, fróg, fâke, fâith, óften, déaf, fít, íf, fŏrce, fåll

ff: óff, éffort, búffer, óffal, clíff, stíff, búff, púff

ph: Phílip, grāph, phâse, élephant, philósopher, hîeroglýph

gh: after ou: toúgh, enoúgh, roúgh, cóugh, tróugh

ft: óften, sóften

IPA /v/ v vv f ph

v: vieŵ, véry, vãry, shâve, háve, drîve, vâgue, vôte, vâcant, vîolent, Stêven, vāst, vãrious, avër, còver, hóver, ôver, léaven, lêave, wêave

vv: flívver, révved, bóvver

f: óf

ph: Stêphen

IPA /θ/ unvoiced th

thíck, thín, trûth, Rûth, rûthless, bréath, ûndernêath, thínk, píthy, ísthmus, bôth, lôth or lôath, bréath, wrêath, déath, mòuth noun

IPA /ð/ voiced th dh

th: thén, thére, thís, thát, thús, thôugh, thêrefore, òther, bròther, mòther, wíth, brêathe, wrêathe, lôathe, clôthe BrE eîther AmE êither, wéather clouds = whéther if, mòuth verb

dh: Rìyadh, édh

IPA /s/ s ss sc st c ps

s: sêe, såw, sêen, sôap, séven, séptic, sêrial drama, sŏurce, spécial, ûse noun, ûsage, āsk, flāsk, tāsk, bāsk, désk, whísk, dúsk

ss: máss, lóss, drôss, grôss, méssy, véssel, hássle, guéss, dréss, kíss, híss

sc scêne, scéptre, coalésce, acquiésce

st: whístle, lísten, grístle, mústn’t, hâsten, hústle, bústle, fāsten, cāstle

c before front vowels: nîce, îce, fâce, cêreal breakfast, spâcy, lícit, âce

ps: pseûd, psychólogy, psŷche

IPA /z/ z zz s

z: zoô, zône, zíp, hâzel, prétzel, ôzone, ádze, dôze, AmE côzy, râzor

zz: búzz, fízz, dázzle, púzzle, núzzle, jázz, whízz, búzzer

s: ûse verb, êasy, nôse, nâsal, lâser, BrE côsy, pôsy, pôse, lâser

IPA /ʃ/ sh ss sch s ch ce ci ti xi

sh: shíp, shóp, shoôt, shín, shîne, blúsh, mésh, dísh, ẁash, ásh, áshen, fáshion, shéd, shélter

ss: before i: pássion, físsion, míssion

before u: assůre, préssure

sch: schwà, schnápps, schmåltz

s: AmE sûre, insûre, BrE sůre, insůre

Si from Welsh and Irish: Siàn, Siobhăn *Shivăwn

Se from Irish: Seăn (= Shăwn, Shăun)

ch from French: machìne, nîche, pastîche, BrE moustàche, AmE mústáche, gauche (ô), brôchure, créche, panáche, Míchigan

ce: ôcean, crustâcean

ci: spêcies, spêcious, précious, vícious

ti: fíction, áction, nôtion, devôtion, môtion, lôtion, complêtion, fictítious

xi includes an initial 'k' sound: nóxious (*nókshəss), ánxious (*ánkshəss)

IPA /ʒ/ zh zu si su g

Most conveniently descibed as the zh sound, as this spelling is used when romanising from Russian, etc.; it is however, not normally spelt thus, si being the most frequent spelling. In French the sound is common and rendered with a j:

j: joie de vivre *zhwàdvìvrə, le mot juste *ləmô-zhûst

zh: Brézhnev, Solzhenýtzin, Yoûzhny

zu: ázure, sêizure

si: vísion, télevision, cohêsion, lêsion, Âsian

su in -sure: pléasure, tréasure, AmE lêisure BrE léisure, clôsure

g from French: Nigér

IPA /h/ h wh

h: hélp, hít, heáven, héll, hàrbour, hôme, hórror, hórrible, hôpe, ahéad, ahŏy, àhà, Mahôney, enhānce, Hárris, Hámpstead, háppen, hápless

wh: who (*hû), whôle, whoôping-cóugh

IPA /m/ m mm mb mn

m: múch, môst, Mîchael (*Mŷcle), émpty, mén, míx, glámour, ámber, ámble, whím, dímple, crúmple, crúmble, húmble, ámber, ámplify, woman (*wùmən), women (*wímən), mémory

mm: hámmer, dímmer, glímmer, jámming, swímming, swímmer, símmer, púmmel, búmmer, súmmer

mb final: thúmb, cômb, dúmb, lámb, clîmb, tomb (*toôm) plúmb

mn final: åutumn, hýmn, cólumn

IPA /n/ n nn kn pn

n: nô negative, neŵ old, nót negative, nîght day, nêed require, néver, níl, énemy, sént, nâtive, nôbody, nô-one, noôn, noôdle, nûisance, nést, nâve church

nn: Ánn, Ánne, dínner, ínnings, pénny, ínner, púnning, wínner, fúnnel, túnnel

kn: knôw knowledge, kneŵ know, knót tie, knîght chess, Sir, knêad dough, knêe, knâve jack

pn: pneumátic, pneumônia

IPA /ŋ/ ng n

The ng sound is a restricted phoneme, meaning it cannot appear in certain places. It cannot begin a syllable (except in transcriptions of e.g. Vietnamese names) and so is not found initially, only medially and finally:

finally: thíng, síng, sáng, súng, sínger, hánger coat, hángar plane, wíng, spríng, lóng

the g sound added afterwards: lónger (*lóng-ger), fínger, ánger, húnger, ángle, síngle, dángle, Bángra

n before k: thínk pínk ínk wínk sínk sánk súnk púnk tánk dánk tánker pínker ánkle wínkle tínkle

before c: úncle càrbuncle ráncour sánction júnction

before x: ánxious

IPA /l/ l ll

l: lôw lót lénd fâil pâil bucket pâle pallid Pôle Poland = pôle wood pál låw lîght (*lîte) léss râil râiling âiling tâilor = Tâylor trâil

ll: bùll bùlly wåll åll téll dóll pôll election séll buy = céll prison, biology wíll wílling hóller tåller álley allót álloy

IPA /r/ r rr rh wr

r: rêad réd colour réad reading réady rót rãre rôads streets rāther rîce ríddle rôdeo rôad rêcent ràther

rr: árrow fúrrow farràgo sórrow sórry mérry shérry whérry bérry hérring Mórris érror pórridge Hárry fürry BrE wòrry AmE wörry

rh: rhŷme rhýthm rhétoric rhêsus Rhôdes name, Greece rhôdedéndron

wr: wrîte wrén wrêak wrŏught wrést fight wréstle wrínkle awrŷ

AmE pronounces r before a consonant and finally in words like àrm, hürt and ŏrder; BrE does not.

Sometimes a phantom final 'r' can be heard between two vowels, one ending, the other beginning, a word: Índia(r)and Srì Lánka

IPA /j/ y

y: yéllow yoúng yét yoûth yôke ox yôlk egg låwyer såwyer

invisible before û: ûse tûne beaûtiful mûte mûsic cûte cûticle ukelèlê

IPA /w/ w wh u h

w: wéll woòd wísh awây wònder wíll wéather sunny ẁant ẁash aẁash wâve wãry wòrry (AmE wörry) ẁaddle ẁander wónky

wh (pronounced 'hw' in AmE): ẁhat whén whére whŷ whénce whéther if whíp whístle whîte

u after q: quêen quîte quîet quést quáck quíck equéstrian acquîre quâint equíp qùarry qùadrupéd qùantum qùantity qùality

from Spanish: Nicarágua (-ágwa or -ágyûa) iguàna marijuàna (*mariyəwànə)

h in two Hebraic names: Côhen Ménuhin

ou from French, initial in Ouagadoûgou (Wág-)

IPA /χ/ kh ch

distinguished by some speakers from /k/:

kh: shèikh Khàlid Khayyám

ch: lóch Bàch Búchan Buchánan

IPA /ks/ x xc ks kes cks cs ches chs

The grapheme x combines the phonemes /k/ and /s/. This is /gz/ for some AmE speakers in some words, for example exáct.

x: láx tóxic Níxon wáx wáxen óx óxen píxie táxi bóx bóxes míx séx áxle Téxas México hôax extrême Tríxie Díxie fáx máximum Báxter

xc: éxcellent excél excépt excéss

chs: in names from German: Óchs (= óx) Fùchs

Accidental in plurals:

ks: bàrks loòks hoòks spoôks tålks wålks boòks sêeks fôlksy

kes: tâkes sâkes bâkes câkes jôkes lîkes êkes nûkes blôkes

cks: sócks pícks trícks pécks knócks búcks tícks marks

cs: àrcs tícs nervous

ches: âches héadaches

Other double consonants, such as ts and ps, which are phonemes in some languages, also occur accidentally, as in géts and cŏrpse.