Energy balance in pregnancy and lactation

All unapproved Citizendium articles may contain errors of fact, bias, grammar etc. A version of an article is unapproved unless it is marked as citable with a dedicated green template at the top of the page, as in this version of the 'Biology' article. Citable articles are intended to be of reasonably high quality. The participants in the Citizendium project make no representations about the reliability of Citizendium articles or, generally, their suitability for any purpose. This article is currently being developed as part of an Eduzendium student project in the framework of a course entitled Appetite and Obesity at University of Edinburgh. The course homepage can be found at CZ:(U00984) Appetite and Obesity, University of Edinburgh 2010. For the course duration, the article is closed to outside editing. Of course you can always leave comments on the discussion page. The anticipated date of course completion is 01 February 2011. One month after that date at the latest, this notice shall be removed. Besides, many other Citizendium articles welcome your collaboration!

An individual’s requirement for essential nutrients corresponds to the amount of food they consume in relation to his/her energy needs, and a woman will have very different energy metabolism and energy requirements during pregnancy . When a woman enters pregnancy she should have a consistent long-term good body size and composition, and should gain weight at a rate consistent with good health for herself and her child. The recommendations for energy intake for women vary depending on their background (population-specific) as they differ in body size and lifestyles. For example, the energy requirements are different for well-nourished women from developed countries compared to shorter women from developing countries.

Energy metabolism and energy requirements during pregnancy and lactation

Energy Metabolism

During pregnancy, women gain weight which comprises of the products of conception (foetus, placenta, amniotic fluid), the increases of various maternal tissues (uterus, breasts, blood, extracellular extravascular fluid), and the increases in maternal fat stores. Therefore the energy cost of maintenance (also known as the basal metabolic rate, BMR), as well as physical activity, increases as a result of the increased tissue mass.

This anabolic situation in pregnancy leads to a positive energy balance although some pregnant woman may also have a negative energy balance.1 This is due to the numerous metabolic adjustments that occur during pregnancy and lactation to support both foetal growth and milk synthesis without disrupting maternal homeostasis which requires retention of fat and protein in the mother and foetus. These adjustments ensure that a constant supply of glucose and amino acids reach the foetus. Adjustments also occur for lactation ensuring the mammary gland is the main area of nutrient utilization.3

INSERT FIGURE 1 FROM ENERGY METABOLISM DURING HUMAN PREGNANCY.

Energy is needed to synthesise the correct amount of fat and protein in new tissue and this consists of two components: 1. The energy in fat and protein retained in the body 2. The energy needed to synthesise these components. As it has been shown in figure 1 the total energy expenditure in pregnancy consists of four components including the energy costs for synthesizing the fat and protein retained.1

Recent information on BMR has found that the average increase during the first, second and third trimesters was 4%, 10% and 24% respectively although different women vary considerably. Women from developing countries showed a much smaller increase in BMR than those from developed countries, furthermore women with high prepregnant BMI values showed larger increases in BMR which indicates a possible increase in metabolic activity of adipose tissue in pregnancy (LINK TO JO’s SECTION). Data therefore shows that a change in BMR during pregnancy is largely a function of maternal nutritional status.

Availability of substrates to the foetus

To sustain the foetus’ growth, the mother must continuously supply it with nutrients; most importantly, glucose and amino acids. Although the placenta is almost impermeable to lipids, other than free fatty acids and ketone bodies, lipid metabolism is highly affected during pregnancy. There are two key stages during gestation; the first corresponds to the first 2/3 of the pregnancy when the foetal growth is minimal and the mother stores a great proportion of the nutrients consumed, which along with her increased food intake causes fat store accumulation. The last trimester is when the foetus grows very rapidly which is sustained through nutrient transfer through the placenta which means the mother switches to a catabolic condition. Lipid stores in particular are broken down, and glucose is the most abundant nutrient that crosses the placenta at this point.

INSERT FIGURE 2 FROM METABOLIC ADAPTATIONS IN PREGNANCY

Energy requirements

The definition of energy requirements during pregnancy can be paraphrased as "The energy requirement of a pregnant woman is the level of energy intake from food that will balance her energy expenditure when the woman has a body size and composition and level of physical activity consistent with good health, and that will allow for the maintenance of economically necessary and socially desirable physical activity. In pregnant women the energy requirement includes the energy needs associated with the deposition of tissue consistent with optimal pregnancy outcome."

About References

To insert references and/or footnotes in an article, put the material you want in the reference or footnote between <ref> and </ref>, like this: <ref>Person A ''et al.''(2010) The perfect reference for subpart 1 ''J Neuroendocrinol'' 36:36-52</ref> <ref>Author A, Author B (2009) Another perfect reference ''J Neuroendocrinol'' 25:262-9</ref>. Look at the reference list below to see how this will look. If there are more than two authors just put the first author followed by et al. (Person A at al. (2010) etc.) Select your references carefully - make sure they are cited accurately, and pay attention to the precise formatting style of the references. Your references should be available on PubMed and so will have a PubMed number. (for example PMID: 17011504) Writing this without the colon, (i.e. just writing PMID 17011504) will automatically insert a link to the abstract on PubMed (see the reference to Johnsone et al. in the list.) Use references sparingly; there's no need to reference every single point, and often a good review will cover several points. However sometimes you will need to use the same reference more than once.

How to write the same reference twice:

Reference: Berridge KC (2007) The debate over dopamine’s role in reward: the case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology 191:391–431 PMID 17072591

First time: <ref name=Berridge07>Berridge KC (2007) The debate over dopamine’s role in reward: the case for incentive salience. ''Psychopharmacology'' 191:391–431 PMID 17072591 </ref>

Second time:<ref name=Berridge07/>

This will appear like this the first time and like this the second time

Figures and Diagrams

You can also insert diagrams or photographs (to Upload files Cz:Upload)). These must be your own original work - and you will therefore be the copyright holder; of course they may be based on or adapted from diagrams produced by others - in which case this must be declared clearly, and the source of the orinal idea must be cited. When you insert a figure or diagram into your article you will be asked to fill out a form in which you declare that you are the copyright holder and that you are willing to allow your work to be freely used by others - choose the "Release to the Public Domain" option when you come to that page of the form.

When you upload your file, give it a short descriptive name, like "Adipocyte.png". Then, if you type {{Image|Adipocyte.png|right|300px|}} in your article, the image will appear on the right hand side.