Logarithm

A logarithm is a mathematical function that provides the number that would appear as the exponent in an expression. For example, since Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 343 = 7^3} , then the base-7 logarithmic function of 343 is 3. In general, if Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle a = b^c} , then Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_b(a) = c} .

Because we use a base-10 number system, it is often convenient to use 10 as the base of the logarithm. Multiplying a number by 10 appends a zero to the numeral and adds 1 to the logarithm. For example, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_{10}(43)} is approximately equal to 1.63347, and multiplying by 10, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_{10}(430)} is approximately 2.63347.

Mathematicians and physicists often find, however, that the transcendental number Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle e} is more convenient as a base for a logarithmic function. The value of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle e} is approximately equal to 2.718281828459045. The logarithmic function with Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle e} as a base is called the "natural logarithm" and is often written Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \ln(x)} ; it is the function whose derivative is Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1/x} .

Extension of logarithms to fractional and negative values

Originally, exponents were natural numbers: it's easy to see the meaning of an expression such as Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 10^3 = 10 \times 10 \times 10} . Rules for adding and multiplying exponents were noticed, and to extend the idea to fractions and negative numbers it was assumed that the same rules would apply. To define a meaning for a fractional value such as Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 10^\frac{1}{2}} , consider that, using a rule for multiplying exponents,

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (10^\frac{1}{2})^2 = 10^{\frac{1}{2}\times 2} = 10^1 = 10}

Therefore Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 10^\frac{1}{2}} must be Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \sqrt{10}} and this then supplies a value for Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_{10}(\sqrt{10}) = 0.5} . Values for many other numbers can be worked out similarly using cube roots and so on, and values for all real numbers can then be defined using limits.

To assign meaning to negative values of exponents, note the rule that

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b^x b^y = b^{x + y}.}

So, for example, to find the meaning of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 10^{-3}} , consider

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 10^{-3}\times10^4 = 10^{-3 + 4} = 10^1 = 10}

Therefore,

$10^{-3}={\frac {10}{10^{4}}}=0.001$

and it then follows that

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_{10}(0.001) = -3,}

or in general,

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_b\left(\frac{1}{x}\right) = - \log_b(x).}

By a similar argument it can be established that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b^0 = 1} for any base Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b>1} and therefore that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_b(1) = 0} .

Thus, logarithms of numbers between 0 and 1 are negative numbers, the logarithm of 1 is 0, and logarithms of numbers that fall between powers of the base are (usually non-integer) real numbers.

Shape of the logarithm function

Consider the function Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle f(x) = \log_b(x)} where b is a real-number base greater than 1 of the logarithm. Since any positive real number raised to the exponent zero is 1, the logarithm of 1 is zero. To the right of 1 on the x-axis, the function Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle f} continually increases, but increases more and more slowly as Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x} heads towards infinity. Between 1 and 0, the logarithmic function has negative values, and asymptotically approaches minus infinity as Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x} approaches zero. For negative values of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x} , there is no defined value of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle f(x)} within the real numbers — but using complex numbers a value can be found, as will be discussed further below.

Manipulating logarithms

Suppose we know the logarithm of a number using one base Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b} , and we want to find the logarithm using a different base Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle c}  :

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_b(x) = y}

$\log _{c}(x)=$?

Suppose we know Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle y} , Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle c} and we want to find Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \scriptstyle{\log_c(x)}} . We need to look up the value of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_c(b)} , and then by multiplying we can find the desired quantity:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_c(x) = \log_c(b)\log_b(x) }

This formula can be established using the definition of logarithms and the rule for multiplying exponents:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x = b^{\log_bx}}

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b = c^{\log_cb}}

Substituting for b,

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x = (c^{\log_cb})^{\log_bx}}

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle x = c^{\log_c(b) \log_b(x)}}

Therefore Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_c(x) = \log_c(b)\log_b(x) } , the formula we wished to prove.

A useful formula for Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log(xy)} can be derived using the rule for adding exponents:

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b^{\log_b(xy)} = xy = b^{\log_bx}b^{\log_by} = b^{\log_bx + \log_by}}

Therefore :

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \log_b(xy) = \log_b(x) + \log_b(y)}

Notational Variants

When logarithms are used to measure physical values (e.g., when noise is measured in deciBels) it is common to use 10 as a base, and in these contexts, the notation Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \scriptstyle\log x} means $\scriptstyle \log _{10}\,x$. In mathematics, it is more useful to use natural logarithms (i.e., logarithms to the base of $e$). The notation $\scriptstyle \ln x$ is sometimes used for natural logarithms, but in mathematics it is just as common to use the notation $\log \,x$ and write logarithms to base 10 using the full notation $\scriptstyle \log _{10}\,x$. Computer science adds a whole new wrinkle because, in some cases, it is most useful to consider logarithms to base 2, and this has led to a new notation $\mathrm {lg} \,x$ which become common for logarithms to a base of 2. Finally, the notation $\scriptstyle \log \,x$ is sometimes used for logarithms to base 2, but this is usage is less common.

Complex numbers and logarithms

The exponential function of an imaginary number is given as

$e^{ix}=\cos(x)+i\sin(x).\,$

To find the logarithm of a complex number $a+bi$, it's convenient to express the number in polar coordinates $(r,\theta )$ where $\scriptstyle r={\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}}$ and $\theta =\arctan(b/a)$. (Intuitively, $r$ is the length of the line segment joining the number to the origin in the complex plane, and $\theta$ is the angle that line segment makes with the $x$-axis.) The equivalence of the two notations is given by

$a+bi=r(\cos(\theta )+i\sin(\theta )).\,$

Suppose we define $c+di$ such that $\ln(a+bi)=c+di$. Using the formula for the exponential function above,

$a+bi=e^{c+di}=e^{c}e^{di}=e^{c}(\cos(d)+i\sin(d))\,$

It can be seen from similarity with the above formula for polar coordinates that $\scriptstyle {r=e^{c}}$ and $\scriptstyle {d=\theta }$. Therefore,

$\ln(a+bi)=c+di=\ln(r)+i\theta =\ln({\sqrt {a^{2}+b^{2}}})+i\arctan \left({\frac {b}{a}}\right).\,$

In this way, the logarithmic function can be extended to cover the entire complex plane except for the number zero, which has an undefined value — a singularity with the real part plunging towards minus infinity and the imaginary part spinning wildly.