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A '''mêchanê''' (''μηχανῆ'', plural: ''mêchanai'') was a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] used in ancient [[Ancient Greek Theater|Greek]] and [[Theater of ancient Rome|Roman theater]] and was probably in wide use since the fourth century BC. | A '''mêchanê''' (''μηχανῆ'', plural: ''mêchanai'') was a [[Crane (machine)|crane]] used in ancient [[Ancient Greek Theater|Greek]] and [[Theater of ancient Rome|Roman theater]] and was probably in wide use since the fourth century BC. The device was used to lift a harnessed actor into the air, whenever the plot required a character to fly. The stage machine was later used to also bring gods onto the stage from above,<ref name="Greek mêchanê sources">[[Plato]], ''Cratylus'' 425d; ''Clitophon'' 407a</ref> hence the Latin term [[Deus ex machina|''deus ex machina'']] ("god from the machine").<ref name="Entrance of gods">The ''mêchanê'' as a means for introducing a ''deus ex machina'' onto the stage was probably not in widespread use before the 4th century BC: "Gods who intervene in fifth century tragedies probably appeared through a trap-door on the roof of the ''skene'' to address mortals from a higher level." (Roger Dunkle, [http://depthome.brooklyn.cuny.edu/classics/dunkle/tragedy/index.htm ''Introduction to Greek Tragedy''])</ref> The ''mêchanê'' was used in tragedies and comedies alike. | ||
==Construction== | |||
Since the ''mêchanê'' had to carry weights of up to one ton, the device was probably supported by the projection of stone which extended into the ''orchestra'' from the terrace wall, and affixed to one of the posts which supported the ''[[skene]]''.<ref>"Introduction to Greek Stagecraft", in ''Didaskalia'', Berkeley 2002</ref> The device itself consisted of wooden beams and a pulley system, i.e. wheels and ropes which could raise considerable weights and, in some cases, move them back and forth violently, when the play demanded it. The vertical dimensions were over four meters, while the horizontal travel could be more than eight meters.<ref>Dimarogonas, "Mechanics of the Ancient Greek Theater", ''ASME Design Conference'', Phoenix 1992, quoted [http://www.mech.upatras.gr/~chondros/HistofTechnology.html here] (including reconstructional images).</ref> The ''mêchanai'' must have been well-balanced with sufficient counter-weights and were operated by the theater's engineer, the so-called '''''mêchanopóios''''', a term also used for the builder of the ''mêchanê''. | |||
==Original use of the ''mêchanê''== | |||
The earliest known use of the device is possibly found in [[The Oresteia#The Eumenides|''The Eumenides'']] by [[Aeschylus]], who utilized several theater machines for the staging of his tragedy, including a ''mêchanê'', on which he placed the god [[Apollo (mythology)|Apollo]]. [[Euripides]]' use of the ''mêchanê'' in ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'' ([[431 BC]]) is a notable early application of the machine for a non-divine character, providing a means of escape for [[Medea]] from [[Corinth]] after she murders her children. It was used by Euripides to possibly symbolize the underestimated power of Medea's evilness.<ref>Maurice P. Cunningham, "Medea Aπο Mηχανης", in ''Classical Philology'', Vol. 49, No. 3, 1954, pp. 151–160</ref> [[Sophocles]] in his old age utilized the ''mêchanê'' to introduce [[Heracles]] at the end of [[Philoctetes (Sophocles)|''Philoctetes'']] to induce the title character to leave for Troy. The crucial dramatic timing between stage and engineering can in theory be deduced from the specific lines sung by the [[Greek chorus|''choros'']], which hints at the amount of time that the engineers had to unload, reload or operate the ''mêchanê''. | |||
==Other uses== | |||
Stage machines were also used in ancient [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], e.g. during the sometimes highly dramatic performances at [[Roman Funerals and Burial|funerals]]. For [[Julius Caesar's funeral]] service [[Appian]] reports a rotating ''mêchanê'' that was used to present a blood-stained wax [[Effigy|effigy]] of the deceased [[dictator]] to the funeral crowd.<ref name="Mêchanê at Caesar's funeral">Appian, ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/2*.html#147 2.147]: ''τὸ μὲν γὰρ σῶμα, ὡς ὕπτιον ἐπὶ λέχους, οὐχ ἑωρᾶτο. τὸ δὲ ἀνδρείκελον ἐκ μηχανῆς ἐπεστρέφετο πάντῃ''. Appian's ''mêchanê'' probably describes the device (or part of the device) that [[Suetonius]] rendered as the [[Tropaeum|''tropaeum'']], which was covered by Caesar's blood-stained robe and to which possibly also the effigy (''simulacrum'') was affixed. (''Divus Iulius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#84 84]; here ''tropaeum'' has been erroneously translated as "pillar".)</ref> [[Geoffrey S. Sumi|Geoffrey Sumi]] proposed that the use of the ''mêchanê'' "hinted at [[Divus Iulius|Caesar's divinity]]".<ref name="Sumi source">Geoffrey S. Sumi, ''Ceremony and Power. Performing Politics in Rome between Republic and Empire'', Ann Arbor 2005, pp. 107–109, chapter: "Caesar ex machina", ISBN 978-0-472-11517-4</ref> This is highly unlikely because Appian doesn't describe the ''mêchanê'' as a genuine ''deus-ex-machina'' device. Furthermore Caesar's [[apotheosis]] wasn't legally conducted until [[42 BC]], and [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] had only been worshipped inofficially as [[Divus|''divus'']] during his lifetime. First and foremost [[Mark Antony]], who functioned as [[Choregos|''choregós'']] and probably as master of ceremonies during the funeral, attempted to arouse the masses as a means to strengthen Caesar's esteem as well as his own political power.<ref name="Consequences">The fact that Caesar's [[Resurrection|''resurrectio'']] as god was believed to have happened later during the funeral as he was [[Cremation|cremated]], and that it spawned the early Caesarian cult by the [[Gaius Marius (Pseudo-Marius)|Pseudo-Marius]], can't explain Antony's intentions for using a ''mêchanê'' during the funeral, since the cremation occured after the fact.</ref> | Stage machines were also used in ancient [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], e.g. during the sometimes highly dramatic performances at [[Roman Funerals and Burial|funerals]]. For [[Julius Caesar's funeral]] service [[Appian]] reports a rotating ''mêchanê'' that was used to present a blood-stained wax [[Effigy|effigy]] of the deceased [[dictator]] to the funeral crowd.<ref name="Mêchanê at Caesar's funeral">Appian, ''Civil Wars'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Appian/Civil_Wars/2*.html#147 2.147]: ''τὸ μὲν γὰρ σῶμα, ὡς ὕπτιον ἐπὶ λέχους, οὐχ ἑωρᾶτο. τὸ δὲ ἀνδρείκελον ἐκ μηχανῆς ἐπεστρέφετο πάντῃ''. Appian's ''mêchanê'' probably describes the device (or part of the device) that [[Suetonius]] rendered as the [[Tropaeum|''tropaeum'']], which was covered by Caesar's blood-stained robe and to which possibly also the effigy (''simulacrum'') was affixed. (''Divus Iulius'' [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Julius*.html#84 84]; here ''tropaeum'' has been erroneously translated as "pillar".)</ref> [[Geoffrey S. Sumi|Geoffrey Sumi]] proposed that the use of the ''mêchanê'' "hinted at [[Divus Iulius|Caesar's divinity]]".<ref name="Sumi source">Geoffrey S. Sumi, ''Ceremony and Power. Performing Politics in Rome between Republic and Empire'', Ann Arbor 2005, pp. 107–109, chapter: "Caesar ex machina", ISBN 978-0-472-11517-4</ref> This is highly unlikely because Appian doesn't describe the ''mêchanê'' as a genuine ''deus-ex-machina'' device. Furthermore Caesar's [[apotheosis]] wasn't legally conducted until [[42 BC]], and [[Julius Caesar|Caesar]] had only been worshipped inofficially as [[Divus|''divus'']] during his lifetime. First and foremost [[Mark Antony]], who functioned as [[Choregos|''choregós'']] and probably as master of ceremonies during the funeral, attempted to arouse the masses as a means to strengthen Caesar's esteem as well as his own political power.<ref name="Consequences">The fact that Caesar's [[Resurrection|''resurrectio'']] as god was believed to have happened later during the funeral as he was [[Cremation|cremated]], and that it spawned the early Caesarian cult by the [[Gaius Marius (Pseudo-Marius)|Pseudo-Marius]], can't explain Antony's intentions for using a ''mêchanê'' during the funeral, since the cremation occured after the fact.</ref> | ||
In [[Christian]] [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]] the ''mêchanê'' has been identified with the [[Christian cross|cross]]. [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] calls the cross the "theater machine" of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]].<ref name="Ignatius source">Ignatius of Antioch, ''Letter to the Ephesians'' IX 1: ''ἀναφερόμενοι εἰς τὰ ὕψη διὰ τῆς μηχανῆς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν σταυρός''.</ref> The theatrical character of the Christian cross is still visible in the slanted ''[[suppedaneum]]'' ("footrest") of the original [[Patriarchal_cross|''Crux Orthodoxa'']], which indicates the rotating movement of the cross that had been very prominent in depictions of the Christ's [[crucifixion]] especially in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]], but also in the [[Roman Catholic Church|Western Church]] until early [[Baroque]], e.g. on the famous [[Isenheim Altarpiece]] by [[Matthias Grünewald]]. | In [[Christian]] [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]] the ''mêchanê'' has been identified with the [[Christian cross|cross]]. [[Ignatius of Antioch|Ignatius]] calls the cross the "theater machine" of [[Jesus]] [[Christ]].<ref name="Ignatius source">Ignatius of Antioch, ''Letter to the Ephesians'' IX 1: ''ἀναφερόμενοι εἰς τὰ ὕψη διὰ τῆς μηχανῆς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν σταυρός''.</ref> The theatrical character of the Christian cross is still visible in the slanted ''[[suppedaneum]]'' ("footrest") of the original [[Patriarchal_cross|''Crux Orthodoxa'']], which indicates the rotating movement of the cross that had been very prominent in depictions of the Christ's [[crucifixion]], especially in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]], but also in the [[Roman Catholic Church|Western Church]] until early [[Baroque]], e.g. on the famous [[Isenheim Altarpiece]] by [[Matthias Grünewald]]. | ||
== | ==Notes== | ||
{{reflist}} | {{reflist}} | ||
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* [[Theater of ancient Rome]] | * [[Theater of ancient Rome]] | ||
* [[Deus ex machina]] | * [[Deus ex machina]] | ||
* [[Caesar's funeral]] | * [[Caesar's funeral|Julius Caesar's ''funus'']] | ||
[[Category:Classics Workgroup|Mechane]] | [[Category:Classics Workgroup|Mechane]] | ||
[[Category:Theater Workgroup|Mechane]] | [[Category:Theater Workgroup|Mechane]] | ||
[[Category:CZ Live]] | [[Category:CZ Live]] | ||
Revision as of 18:21, 20 July 2007
A mêchanê (μηχανῆ, plural: mêchanai) was a crane used in ancient Greek and Roman theater and was probably in wide use since the fourth century BC. The device was used to lift a harnessed actor into the air, whenever the plot required a character to fly. The stage machine was later used to also bring gods onto the stage from above,[1] hence the Latin term deus ex machina ("god from the machine").[2] The mêchanê was used in tragedies and comedies alike.
Construction
Since the mêchanê had to carry weights of up to one ton, the device was probably supported by the projection of stone which extended into the orchestra from the terrace wall, and affixed to one of the posts which supported the skene.[3] The device itself consisted of wooden beams and a pulley system, i.e. wheels and ropes which could raise considerable weights and, in some cases, move them back and forth violently, when the play demanded it. The vertical dimensions were over four meters, while the horizontal travel could be more than eight meters.[4] The mêchanai must have been well-balanced with sufficient counter-weights and were operated by the theater's engineer, the so-called mêchanopóios, a term also used for the builder of the mêchanê.
Original use of the mêchanê
The earliest known use of the device is possibly found in The Eumenides by Aeschylus, who utilized several theater machines for the staging of his tragedy, including a mêchanê, on which he placed the god Apollo. Euripides' use of the mêchanê in Medea (431 BC) is a notable early application of the machine for a non-divine character, providing a means of escape for Medea from Corinth after she murders her children. It was used by Euripides to possibly symbolize the underestimated power of Medea's evilness.[5] Sophocles in his old age utilized the mêchanê to introduce Heracles at the end of Philoctetes to induce the title character to leave for Troy. The crucial dramatic timing between stage and engineering can in theory be deduced from the specific lines sung by the choros, which hints at the amount of time that the engineers had to unload, reload or operate the mêchanê.
Other uses
Stage machines were also used in ancient Rome, e.g. during the sometimes highly dramatic performances at funerals. For Julius Caesar's funeral service Appian reports a rotating mêchanê that was used to present a blood-stained wax effigy of the deceased dictator to the funeral crowd.[6] Geoffrey Sumi proposed that the use of the mêchanê "hinted at Caesar's divinity".[7] This is highly unlikely because Appian doesn't describe the mêchanê as a genuine deus-ex-machina device. Furthermore Caesar's apotheosis wasn't legally conducted until 42 BC, and Caesar had only been worshipped inofficially as divus during his lifetime. First and foremost Mark Antony, who functioned as choregós and probably as master of ceremonies during the funeral, attempted to arouse the masses as a means to strengthen Caesar's esteem as well as his own political power.[8]
In Christian liturgy the mêchanê has been identified with the cross. Ignatius calls the cross the "theater machine" of Jesus Christ.[9] The theatrical character of the Christian cross is still visible in the slanted suppedaneum ("footrest") of the original Crux Orthodoxa, which indicates the rotating movement of the cross that had been very prominent in depictions of the Christ's crucifixion, especially in the Orthodox Church, but also in the Western Church until early Baroque, e.g. on the famous Isenheim Altarpiece by Matthias Grünewald.
Notes
- ↑ Plato, Cratylus 425d; Clitophon 407a
- ↑ The mêchanê as a means for introducing a deus ex machina onto the stage was probably not in widespread use before the 4th century BC: "Gods who intervene in fifth century tragedies probably appeared through a trap-door on the roof of the skene to address mortals from a higher level." (Roger Dunkle, Introduction to Greek Tragedy)
- ↑ "Introduction to Greek Stagecraft", in Didaskalia, Berkeley 2002
- ↑ Dimarogonas, "Mechanics of the Ancient Greek Theater", ASME Design Conference, Phoenix 1992, quoted here (including reconstructional images).
- ↑ Maurice P. Cunningham, "Medea Aπο Mηχανης", in Classical Philology, Vol. 49, No. 3, 1954, pp. 151–160
- ↑ Appian, Civil Wars 2.147: τὸ μὲν γὰρ σῶμα, ὡς ὕπτιον ἐπὶ λέχους, οὐχ ἑωρᾶτο. τὸ δὲ ἀνδρείκελον ἐκ μηχανῆς ἐπεστρέφετο πάντῃ. Appian's mêchanê probably describes the device (or part of the device) that Suetonius rendered as the tropaeum, which was covered by Caesar's blood-stained robe and to which possibly also the effigy (simulacrum) was affixed. (Divus Iulius 84; here tropaeum has been erroneously translated as "pillar".)
- ↑ Geoffrey S. Sumi, Ceremony and Power. Performing Politics in Rome between Republic and Empire, Ann Arbor 2005, pp. 107–109, chapter: "Caesar ex machina", ISBN 978-0-472-11517-4
- ↑ The fact that Caesar's resurrectio as god was believed to have happened later during the funeral as he was cremated, and that it spawned the early Caesarian cult by the Pseudo-Marius, can't explain Antony's intentions for using a mêchanê during the funeral, since the cremation occured after the fact.
- ↑ Ignatius of Antioch, Letter to the Ephesians IX 1: ἀναφερόμενοι εἰς τὰ ὕψη διὰ τῆς μηχανῆς Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, ὅς ἐστιν σταυρός.