Polynomial

In algebra, a polynomial is, roughly speaking, a formal expression obtained from constant numbers and one or several unspecified numbers called "variables", denoted by letters like $x$, $y$, etc., by making a finite number of additions, subtractions and multiplications. For instance, $x^{2}-2x+1$ and ${\frac {1}{2}}x^{3}+x-{\sqrt {2}}$ are polynomials of one variable, whereas $x^{2}+y^{2}$ is a polynomial of two variables. Expressions like ${\frac {x-1}{x^{2}+2}}$ or ${\sqrt {x^{2}+1}}$ are not polynomials ; the first one is a rational fraction, and the second one is an irrational expression, due to the square root symbol. Let us remark however that any operation may be allowed between constant numbers (including fractions or taking square root), as the ${\frac {1}{2}}x^{3}+x-{\sqrt {2}}$ example suggests.

It may be convenient to think of a polynomial as a function of its variables, that is, $x\mapsto x^{2}-2x+1$ or Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (x,y)\mapsto x^2+y^2} . Such a function is called a polynomial function. But in reality, both concepts are different, the unspecified variables being purely formal entities when one thinks of an abstract polynomial, whereas they are meant to be replaced by any number when one thinks of a function. The distinction is important in abstract algebra, because what we have called "constant numbers" is more generally replaced by any ring, and for some rings the two concepts cannot be identified. There is not such a problem with polynomials over rings of usual numbers like integers, rational, real or complex numbers. Still it is important to understand that calculations with polynomials can be conceived in an only formal way, without giving any special ontological status to the variables. To make the distinction clear, it is common in algebra to denote the abstract variables with capital letters (Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} , Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Y} , etc.), while variables of functions are still denoted with lowercase letters. We will use this convention in what follows.

Polynomials of one variable

In this section we deal with the simplest case, that is, polynomials of only one variable, denoted Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} . The "constant numbers" are the element of any commutative ring Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R} . The reader who is not accustomed to abstract algebra may replace Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R} by a familiar set of numbers, like the set $\mathbb {R}$ of the real numbers, as it is the case in the Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}X^3+X-\sqrt{2}} example above, and still can grasp most of what follows.

Definition

Let us consider some expressions like Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X^2-2X+1} , Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}X^3+X-\sqrt{2}} , or Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 2X^5-3X^2+1} . We can write all of them as follows:

$X^{2}-2X+1=1+(-2)X+1X^{2}+0X^{3}+0X^{4}+\cdots ,$ Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \frac{1}{2}X^3+X-\sqrt{2}=-\sqrt{2}+1X+0X^2+\frac{1}{2}X^3+0X^4+\cdots,} Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 2X^5-3X^2+1=1+0X+(-3)X^2+0X^3+0X^4+2X^5+0X^6+\cdots.}

This suggests that a polynomial can be entirely defined by giving a sequence of numbers, which are called its coefficients, all of them being zero from some rank. For instance the three polynomials above can be written respectively Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (1,-2,1,0,0,\cdots)} , $\left(-{\sqrt {2}},1,0,{\frac {1}{2}},0,\cdots \right)$, and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (1,0,-3,0,0,2,0,\cdots)} , the dots meaning the sequence continues with an infinity of zeros. This leads to the definition below.

Definition. A polynomial Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P} , over the ring Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R} is a sequence Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P=\left(a_0,a_1,a_2,\cdots,a_n,\cdots\right)} of elements of $R$, called the coefficients of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P} , this sequence containing only a finite number of nonzero terms. The rank of the last nonzero term is called the degree of the polynomial.

Hence, the degrees of the three polynomials given above are respectively 2, 3 and 5. By convention, the degree of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle (0,0,\cdots)} is set to Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle -\infty} .

This definition may surprise the reader, because in reality, one thinks of a polynomial as an expression of the form $a_{0}+a_{1}X+a_{2}X^{2}+\cdots +a_{n}X^{n}$ rather than Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \left(a_0,a_1,a_2,\cdots ,a_n,\cdots\right)} . We will progressively show how to return to this usual way of writing a polynomial. First, we identify any element Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle a_0} of the ring to the polynomial Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \left(a_0,0,0,\cdots\right)} . For instance, we write only $7$ instead of the cumbersome Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \left(7,0,0,\cdots\right)} , (or in the familiar fashion Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 7+0X+0X^2+\cdots} ).

Secondly, we merely denote by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} the polynomial

$X=\left(0,1,0,0,\cdots \right)$.

This is natural, as in the familiar fashion this sequence corresponds to Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 0+1X+0X^2+0X^3+\cdots} It remains to give a sense to Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X^2} , $X^{3}$, etc. This will be made in the next two subsections.

Calculation rules

We now define addition and multiplication of polynomials, beginning with addition, which is easy.

Addition

With the traditional notation, if we have Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P=2X^5-3X^2+1} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Q=-X^5+4X^4+2X^2-1} , we want to have $P+Q=(2-1)X^{5}+4X^{4}+(-3+2)X^{2}+1-1=X^{5}+4X^{4}-X^{2}$, that is, one wants to add coefficients separately for each degree. This leads to the formal definition below.

Definition. Given two polynomials $P=\left(a_{0},a_{1},a_{2},\cdots \right)$ and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Q=\left(b_0,b_1,b_2,\cdots\right)} , the sum Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P+Q} is defined by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P+Q=\left(a_0+b_0,a_1+b_1,a_2+b_2,\cdots\right)} .

Multiplication

Multiplication is harder to define. Let us begin with an example using traditional notation. For Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P=X^2+X-2} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Q=2X^2-3X+1} , we want to have

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle PQ=X^2\left(2X^2-3X+1\right)+X\left(2X^2-3X+1\right)-2\left(2X^2-3X+1\right)} ; Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle PQ=2X^4+(-3+2)X^3+(1-3-2\cdot 2)X^2+(1-2\cdot (-3))X-2} ; Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle PQ=2X^4-X^3-6X^2+7X-2} .

One can observe that the coefficient of say, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X^2} , is obtained by adding Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1\cdot 1} , Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1\cdot (-3)} and $-2\cdot 2$, that is, by adding all the Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle a_ib_j} so that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle i+j=2} , where the Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle a_i} denote the coefficients of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P} and the Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle b_j} those of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Q} . Those mechanics lead to give the definition below.

Definition. Given two polynomials Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P=\left(a_0,a_1,a_2,\cdots\right)} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle Q=\left(b_0,b_1,b_2,\cdots\right)} , the product Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle PQ} is defined by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle PQ=\left(c_0,c_1,c_2,\cdots\right)} , where for every index Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle k} , the coefficient Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle c_k} is given by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle c_k=\sum_{i+j=k}a_ib_j} .

The reader which is upset by those cumbersome notations should just retain that this definition allows to multiply polynomials (considered as mere sequences of coefficients) as one is used to do in elementary algebra (using the traditional notation, as in the example). The only striking fact is that in our construction, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} does not represent a number, but a pure abstract entity for which we have defined some rules of calculation.

The algebra Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle R[X]}

With the definition above, one can verify that the product of the polynomial Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X=\left(0,1,0,0,\cdots\right)} par itself, that is Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X^2} , is the sequence Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X^2=\left(0,0,1,0,0,\cdots\right)} . More generally, for each natural number Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n} , one can verify that the Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n} -th power of Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} is given by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X^n=\left(0,\cdots,0,1,0,0,\cdots\right)} , where the Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1} is the coefficient of index Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle n} and all other coefficients are zeros. In particular, we have the usual convention Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X^0=\left(1,0,0,\cdots\right)} , which we identified to the constant Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle 1} .

Now, any polynomial Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle P=\left(a_0,a_1,a_2,\cdots,a_n,0,0,\cdots\right)} is exactly equal to Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle a_0+a_1X+a_2X^2+\cdots+a_nX^n} , where the addition and the powers (which are mere repetitions of multiplications) are defined as in the preceding subsection. Our whole construction legitimates the traditional notation, and from now on, we will only use the later, with which calculations use natural rules of elementary algebra. It is however important to remember that the "variable" Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle X} did not denote some number in our construction, but a particular sequence of coefficients. We have succeeded in defining polynomials in a purely formal manner.