Indo-European languages: Difference between revisions
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#[[Iranian languages]]. These languages are spoken on the plateau of [[Iran]]. There are close affinities between Iranian and Indian languages, suggesting that the peoples who speak dialects of these respective language subgroups have lived in close proximity with each other for a long time. It is believed by many historical linguists that both Indian and Iranian descended from a common ancestor ''Proto-Indo-Iranian''. The Iranian languages are divided into an eastern and a western branch. The modern language of [[Farsi]] (or Persian) is the main representative of the Iranian languages, and it belongs to the eastern branch. Other Iranian languages are [[Afghan]] (or Pushtu) and [[Beluchi]], both spoken in parts of [[Afghanistan]], and [[Kurdish]], which is spoken in an area covering northern [[Iraq]], eastern [[Turkey]], and northwestern [[Iran]]. | #[[Iranian languages]]. These languages are spoken on the plateau of [[Iran]]. There are close affinities between Iranian and Indian languages, suggesting that the peoples who speak dialects of these respective language subgroups have lived in close proximity with each other for a long time. It is believed by many historical linguists that both Indian and Iranian descended from a common ancestor ''Proto-Indo-Iranian''. The Iranian languages are divided into an eastern and a western branch. The modern language of [[Farsi]] (or Persian) is the main representative of the Iranian languages, and it belongs to the eastern branch. Other Iranian languages are [[Afghan]] (or Pushtu) and [[Beluchi]], both spoken in parts of [[Afghanistan]], and [[Kurdish]], which is spoken in an area covering northern [[Iraq]], eastern [[Turkey]], and northwestern [[Iran]]. | ||
#[[Armenian]]. Armenian is somewhat isolated within Indo-European, since it does not appear to be linked to any other group by shared linguistic (grammatical) features, though its vocabulary contains numerous items borrowed from [[Farsi]] as a result of many centuries of Persian domination. Other lexical items found in Armenian come from [[Semitic]] languages, [[Greek]], and [[Turkish]]. | #[[Armenian]]. Armenian is somewhat isolated within Indo-European, since it does not appear to be linked to any other group by shared linguistic (grammatical) features, though its vocabulary contains numerous items borrowed from [[Farsi]] as a result of many centuries of Persian domination. Other lexical items found in Armenian come from [[Semitic]] languages, [[Greek]], and [[Turkish]]. | ||
#[[Hellenic languages]]. The Greek people (or Hellenes) entered the area now known as [[Greece]] around 2000 BC where they displaced numerous other peoples. The early flowering Greek culture produced a number of masterpieces, including the [[Illiad]] and the [[Odyssey]], both [[Homeric]] poems. The Hellenic or Greek languages are divided into five dialect groups: Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadian-Cyprian, Doric, and Northwest Greek. The most important of these dialects is [[Attic]], the dialect of Ancient [[Athens]], which belongs to the Ionic group. Attic attained supremacy in the fifth century BC through the dominant political and commercial position of Athens. Attic formed the basis of a ''[[koiné]]'' or ''[[lingua franca]]'', that is, a mixture of several dialects to facilitate communication between different parts of the Greek world and for use as a unified standard in foreign commerce and diplomacy. Modern Greek, or ''Demotic'' is ultimately descended from ''koiné'' [[Greek]]. | #[[Hellenic languages]]. The Greek people (or Hellenes) entered the area now known as [[Greece]] around 2000 BC where they displaced numerous other peoples. The early flowering Greek culture produced a number of masterpieces, including the [[Illiad]] and the [[Odyssey]], both [[Homeric]] poems. The Hellenic or Greek languages are divided into five dialect groups: Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadian-Cyprian, Doric, and Northwest Greek. The most important of these dialects is [[Attic]], the dialect of Ancient [[Athens]], which belongs to the Ionic group. Attic attained supremacy in the fifth century BC through the dominant political and commercial position of Athens. Attic formed the basis of a ''[[koiné]]'' or ''[[lingua franca]]'', that is, a mixture of several dialects to facilitate communication between different parts of the Greek world and for use as a unified standard in foreign commerce and diplomacy. Modern Greek, or ''Demotic'', is ultimately descended from ''koiné'' [[Greek]]. | ||
#[[Albanian]]. Albanian is an independent member of the Indo-European family, but this has been recognized only since the early twentieth century because the language is permeated with influences from Latin, Greek, Turkish, and Slavonic. Records for Albanian only go back to the fifteenth century AD. | #[[Albanian]]. Albanian is an independent member of the Indo-European family, but this has been recognized only since the early twentieth century because the language is permeated with influences from Latin, Greek, Turkish, and Slavonic. Records for Albanian only go back to the fifteenth century AD. | ||
#[[Italic languages]] ( | #[[Italic languages]]. This group includes numerous languages now extinct, such as [[Etruscan]] and [[Umbrian]], but the main historical representative of this group is [[Latin language|Latin]], originally the language of Latium (the area around [[Rome]]). Vulgar dialects of Latin were spread throughout the Mediterranean and Western Europe and over time these developed into the [[Romance languages]] of Italy ([[Italian language|Italian]]), France ([[French language|French]] and [[Provençal language|Provençal]]), Spain ([[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]]), Portugal ([[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]), and Romania ([[Romanian language|Romanian]]). In addition, there are a number of smaller dialects, such as [[Walloon]] (the French dialects of Belgium), and [[Rhaeto-Romanic]] (or Rhaeto-Romansch, a collection of conservative Romance dialects spoken in parts of Switzerland). | ||
#[[Balto-Slavic languages]] including the [[Baltic languages]] and the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] or [[Slavonic languages]]. | #[[Balto-Slavic languages]] including the [[Baltic languages]] and the [[Slavic languages|Slavic]] or [[Slavonic languages]]. | ||
#[[Germanic languages]]. This | #[[Germanic languages]]. The Germanic languages differ from other Indo-European languages by the First or Germanic Consonant Shift (described as [[Grimm's Law]]). The common ancestor for the Germanic languages are called either ''Germanic'' or ''Proto-Germanic''. This subgroup has three branches: [[East-Germanic languages|East Germanic]], [[North-Germanic languages|North Germanic]], and [[West-Germanic languages|West Germanic]]. The former branch is now extinct but it is relatively well known through the fragments of [[Wulfilla|Wulfilla's]] [[Gothic]] [[Bible]], which dates to the fourth century AD. The North-Germanic branch comprises the [[Scandinavian]] languages [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Danish language|Danish]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], and [[Faroese language|Faroese]]. The West-Germanic branch includes [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], and [[Frisian language|Frisian]]. | ||
#[[Celtic languages]]. | #[[Celtic languages]]. | ||
#[[Tocharian]]. | #[[Tocharian]]. | ||
Revision as of 11:31, 25 April 2008
The family of Indo-European languages is a collection of several hundred languages, including the majority of languages spoken in Europe and the subcontinent of India, that share a considerable common vocabulary and linguistic features. These shared traits have led many scholars to believe that these languages derive from a common ancestor, usually designated Indo-European or Proto-Indo-European (or PIE). Among the living languages that belong to this group are English, French, Spanish, German, Russian, Farsi (Persian), Urdu, and Hindi.
Classification
The family of Indo-European languages is subdivided into a number of subgroups. These are:
- Indian languages. These languages are now spoken in the modern countries of India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan. The oldest literary texts preserved in any Indo-European language are the Vedas. The oldest texts among them date to around 1500 BC. They are written in an early form of Sanskrit. Among the modern languages belonging to this subgroup are:Hindi, Urdu, Bengali, Punjabi.
- Iranian languages. These languages are spoken on the plateau of Iran. There are close affinities between Iranian and Indian languages, suggesting that the peoples who speak dialects of these respective language subgroups have lived in close proximity with each other for a long time. It is believed by many historical linguists that both Indian and Iranian descended from a common ancestor Proto-Indo-Iranian. The Iranian languages are divided into an eastern and a western branch. The modern language of Farsi (or Persian) is the main representative of the Iranian languages, and it belongs to the eastern branch. Other Iranian languages are Afghan (or Pushtu) and Beluchi, both spoken in parts of Afghanistan, and Kurdish, which is spoken in an area covering northern Iraq, eastern Turkey, and northwestern Iran.
- Armenian. Armenian is somewhat isolated within Indo-European, since it does not appear to be linked to any other group by shared linguistic (grammatical) features, though its vocabulary contains numerous items borrowed from Farsi as a result of many centuries of Persian domination. Other lexical items found in Armenian come from Semitic languages, Greek, and Turkish.
- Hellenic languages. The Greek people (or Hellenes) entered the area now known as Greece around 2000 BC where they displaced numerous other peoples. The early flowering Greek culture produced a number of masterpieces, including the Illiad and the Odyssey, both Homeric poems. The Hellenic or Greek languages are divided into five dialect groups: Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadian-Cyprian, Doric, and Northwest Greek. The most important of these dialects is Attic, the dialect of Ancient Athens, which belongs to the Ionic group. Attic attained supremacy in the fifth century BC through the dominant political and commercial position of Athens. Attic formed the basis of a koiné or lingua franca, that is, a mixture of several dialects to facilitate communication between different parts of the Greek world and for use as a unified standard in foreign commerce and diplomacy. Modern Greek, or Demotic, is ultimately descended from koiné Greek.
- Albanian. Albanian is an independent member of the Indo-European family, but this has been recognized only since the early twentieth century because the language is permeated with influences from Latin, Greek, Turkish, and Slavonic. Records for Albanian only go back to the fifteenth century AD.
- Italic languages. This group includes numerous languages now extinct, such as Etruscan and Umbrian, but the main historical representative of this group is Latin, originally the language of Latium (the area around Rome). Vulgar dialects of Latin were spread throughout the Mediterranean and Western Europe and over time these developed into the Romance languages of Italy (Italian), France (French and Provençal), Spain (Spanish, Catalan, Galician), Portugal (Portuguese), and Romania (Romanian). In addition, there are a number of smaller dialects, such as Walloon (the French dialects of Belgium), and Rhaeto-Romanic (or Rhaeto-Romansch, a collection of conservative Romance dialects spoken in parts of Switzerland).
- Balto-Slavic languages including the Baltic languages and the Slavic or Slavonic languages.
- Germanic languages. The Germanic languages differ from other Indo-European languages by the First or Germanic Consonant Shift (described as Grimm's Law). The common ancestor for the Germanic languages are called either Germanic or Proto-Germanic. This subgroup has three branches: East Germanic, North Germanic, and West Germanic. The former branch is now extinct but it is relatively well known through the fragments of Wulfilla's Gothic Bible, which dates to the fourth century AD. The North-Germanic branch comprises the Scandinavian languages Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, and Faroese. The West-Germanic branch includes English, German, Dutch, and Frisian.
- Celtic languages.
- Tocharian.
- Anatolian.
Work in Progress
References
- Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable. A History of the English Language. 3rd edition. London/New York: Routledge, 1980. ISBN 0415050731
- Eduard Prokosch. A Comparative Germanic Grammar. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America, 1938.