Winston Churchill

Winston Churchill

Winston Churchill (Sir Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill) (30 November 1874 - 24 January 1965) was a leading world statesman of the twentieth century, best known as the Prime Minister who led Britain to victory over Nazi Germany in World War II. He was a longtime senior politician and orator, and gained renown (and a Nobel Prize in Literature) as a military historian who defined the historiography of World War II. He was voted the greatest-ever Briton in the 2002 BBC poll, 100 Greatest Britons.

Churchill was a younger son of the top aristocracy. Educated at Harrow and Sandhurst - and indeed largely self-educated, Churchill began as an officer in the British Army, gaining early fame for his war reporting from the Sudan and the Second Boer War. Entering politics in 1900 as a Conservative, he switched to the Liberal Party in 1906 and quickly became a party leader, senior office holder, and sponsor of social reform legislation to end sweatshops and reduce unemployment. During World War I Churchill was most prominent as civilian head of the Royal Navy (his title was First Lord of the Admiralty), where he designed the failed attack on Turkey in the Gallipoli Campaign. He served in the important roles of Minister of Munitions, 1917-1918 and for War (1918-21). He was defeated for reelection in 1922 but returned in 1924 as a Conservative and became Chancellor of the Exchequer (1924-29). Out of power in the 1930s, he was a lone voice warning against Hitler and the Nazis, denouncing appeasement and calling for re-armament in preparation for war with Germany.

After the outbreak of the World War II Churchill returned to power as the First Lord of the Admiralty. Following the resignation of Neville Chamberlain in May 1940 Churchill became Prime Minister in am all-party coalition government with Labour and the Liberals. Churchill was indefatigable in leading the British war effort against Germany; even at the darkest moments his speeches were an inspiration to the embattled British. He forged a close relationship with American President Franklin D. Roosevelt, starting in 1940. Together they proclaimed the "Atlantic Charter" in 1941. The U.S. became the "Arsenal of Democracy," sending munitions to Britain starting in 1940. Britain in turn sent munitions to Russia, as Churchill forged a treaty with Stalin. Europe was the centre of his attention, as the Australians complained about his neglect of their interests (and turned to the U.S. for protection). Recalling the horrible death tolls of 1914-1918, he was reluctant to invade France, proposing instead invasions of North Africa and Italy (which took place in 1942-43) and the Balkans (which did not happen). He strongly supported the strategic air campaign that bombed enemy cities, railyards and oil refineries. He worked very well with Dwight D. Eisenhower, the American general in overall command of the invasion of France that was launched successfully in June 1944. Despite complaints by senior generals and admirals that Churchill interfered too much in military matters, he was successful in balancing the economic, manpower, diplomatic, psychological and military dimensions of the war.

After losing the 1945 election Churchill became the Leader of the Opposition. In 1951 Churchill, despite the obvious frailties of his advanced age, again became Prime Minister before finally retiring in 1955. His six volume history of the war, written from his perspective, shaped the work of most subsequent historians. His state funeral saw one of the largest assemblies of statesmen in the world, as his reputation solidified as the great foe of the Nazis.

Early life

Churchill was the younger son of a the senior branch of the Spencer family, which added the surname "Churchill" to its own in the late eighteenth century. Churchill descended from the second member of the Churchill family to achieve public prominence, John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough. Winston's father, Lord Randolph Churchill (1849–1895) was a third son of a poor Duke; he was a prominent Conservative politician. He married Jennie Jerome (1854–1921), the daughter of American millionaire Leonard Jerome. She was of colonial American stock of English ancestry and brought a dowry of £50,000. Churchill was born in Blenheim Palace, the palace of the dukes of Marlborough, located in Woodstock, Oxfordshire. He had one brother, John Strange Churchill (1880–1947). The parents' marriage faltered, in part because of Lord Randolph's syphilis; Lady Randolph became notorious for her romantic attachments, becoming known as "Lady Jane Snatcher." She liked Winston, but largely ignored him. Churchill rarely spoke with his father, who served as Secretary of state for India, Leader of the House and chancellor of the exchequer; he died when Winston was 21. However the son systematically adopted his father's ideas and political positions, and thereby became well known in political circles. The son idealized his always-absent mother. "She shone for me like the Evening Star," Churchill later wrote. "I loved her dearly—but at a distance." She did importune publishers and prime ministers on his behalf.

He entered Harrow School in 1888 with a track for the Army. Churchill had an independent and rebellious nature; he lacked self-discipline and displayed slovenly or unruly behaviour. His grades were poor apart from English and history; he avoided team sports but was a fencing champion. His father did not think he was smart enough for Oxford, so he went to the military academy at Sandhurst in 1893. He excelled at tactics, fortifications and horsemanship, graduating twentieth out of a class of 130 in 1894; he was commissioned as a Second Lieutenant cavalry officer in the 4th Queen's Own Hussars, where he excelled at polo.

The Army

Churchill in 1895 in Hussars uniform with rank of cornet

India

Posted to Bangalore, India, in 1896, he ignored local conditions. His duties were done well before noon; apart from polo he did not socialize with his peers, who considered the slender, short, highly ambitious young man to be pushy, bumptious and not a proper gentleman. Churchill became an intellectual, as he immersed himself in the classics, devouring the works of Adam Smith, Gibbon, Macaulay, Hallam, Lecky, and Darwin. He carefully studied the parliamentary debates of the 1870s to 1890s, adding to them his own imaginary speeches. He never learned Latin or Greek so he fashioned a prose style modeled on the two finest writers among English historians, Gibbon and Macaulay. A book on the evolution of civilization that ridiculed Christianity led to his loss of religious faith; he believed in evolution and the inevitability of progress.

Between 1897 and 1900, with the aid of his mother's lobbying in London, Churchill fought in three imperial wars while doubling as a war correspondent and writing three books. In 1897 he joined three brigades in fighting a Pathan tribe. His lively account of the skirmishes proved he could write for the popular press; he received £5 per column from the Daily Telegraph and soon became the highest paid war correspondent in the world.

File:WinstonChurchillRiverWar.jpg

The River War, one of Churchill's first books

In late 1899 Churchill went to South Africa as a war correspondent to cover the Second Boer War; his salary was a remarkable £250 per month plus expenses. Caught in an ambush Churchill was captured and held in a POW camp in Pretoria; he escaped--an adventure that made him a minor national hero. He rejoined General Redvers Buller's army on its march to relieve Ladysmith and take Pretoria. Churchill was one of the first British troops into Ladysmith and Pretoria. In 1900, he published two books on the Boer war, London to Ladysmith via Pretoria and Ian Hamilton's March

Churchill's mother used her connections with the prince of Wales to get the her son assigned to the force commanded by Lord Kitchener for the reconquest of the Sudan. Churchill arrived just in time to join the cavalry charge at the battle of Omdurman (2 September 1898), in which his regiment galloped by accident into a ravine crammed with armed men. Churchill, who shot and killed at least three of the enemy, was cool, courageous and lucky. The Morning Post ran his stories, and the public snatched up his two-volume The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan (1899). It displayed a remarkably sympathetic history of the Sudanese revolt against Egyptian rule. A speaking tour of Britain, the U.S. and Canada in 1900 netted £10,000, proving the funding he needed for a political-literary career.

Early years in Parliament

Churchill now had a national reputation and plunged into politics. Calling himself as a "Tory democrat" like his father, he stood as a Conservative candidate in Oldham in a by-election. He lost first time but in the 1900 general election, (called "the Khaki election"), he was elected. His maiden speech was a plea for magnanimity toward the Boers (which was granted). He helped form a group of Tory dissidents led by Lord Hugh Cecil called the "Hughligans". Churchill as a military man drew attention when he spoke out against the government's extravagant military expenditure. He opposed the "tariff reform" (high tariff) platform of Liberal Unionist Joseph Chamberlain, who was in coalition with the Conservatives. Churchill stood for free trade and no tariffs. In 1904, disgusted with the Conservatives, he "crossed the floor" to sit as a member of the Liberal Party. He attacked his erstwhile Conservative colleagues relentlessly; they bitterly denounced him as a turncoat. As a Liberal, he continued to campaign for free trade and won the seat of Manchester North West.

Ministerial office

Growing prominence

When the Liberals took office, with Henry Campbell-Bannerman as Prime Minister, in December 1905, Churchill became Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies; dealing with the adoption of constitutions for the defeated Boer republics of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony and with the issue of 'Chinese slavery' in South African mines. He also became a prominent spokesman on free trade.

When Herbert Henry Asquith became Prime Minister in 1908, Churchill was promoted to the Cabinet as [[President of the Board of Trade. Working closely with David Lloyd George he helped pass major social welfare legislation, called the "New Liberalism.". Churchill focused on the "Trade Boards Bill," a scheme to end the sweatshops in the garment industry; on labour exchanges, designed to reduce unemployment by making job searches easier; and unemployment insurance for 3 million workers in cyclical industries. He supported Lloyd George's highly controversial "People's Budget" of 1909-10 (with spending increase of 11% and multiple tax increases that especially targeted rich landowners), even as it caused a constitutional crisis with the House of Lords. Churchill denied that war with Germany was a threat and opposed the tripling of the warship budget proposed by the Admiralty. Churchill generally was on the winning side, though he was beaten on the warships.

In 1910, Churchill was promoted to Home Secretary. Regarding a dispute at the Cambrian Colliery mine in Tonypandy, initially, Churchill blocked the use of troops fearing a repeat of the 1887 "bloody Sunday" in Trafalgar Square. Nevertheless, troops were deployed to protect the mines and to avoid riots when thirteen strikers were tried for minor offences, an action that broke the tradition of not involving the military in civil affairs and led to lingering dislike for Churchill in Wales.

First Lord of the Admiralty

In 1911, Churchill became First Lord of the Admiralty, a post he held into World War I. He gave impetus to reform efforts, including development of naval aviation, tanks, and the switch in fuel from coal to oil.

He promoted the development of tanks, hoping they would break through trenches, barbed wire and machine gun fire.

In 1915, Churchill was the chief promoter of the Gallipoli strategy, which failed miserably. He took much of the blame for the fiasco, and when Prime Minister Asquith formed an all-party coalition government, the Conservatives demanded Churchill's demotion as the price for entry. For several months Churchill served as "Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster", before resigning from the government. He rejoined the army, though remaining an MP, and served for several months on the Western Front commanding the 6th Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers.

Return to power

In December 1916, Asquith resigned as Prime Minister and was replaced by David Lloyd George. The time was thought not yet right to risk the Conservatives' wrath by bringing Churchill back into government. However, in July 1917, Churchill was appointed Minister of Munitions, and in January 1919, Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air. He was the main architect of the "Ten Year Rule," but the major preoccupation of his tenure in the War Office was the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War. Churchill was a staunch advocate of foreign intervention, declaring that Bolshevism must be "strangled in its cradle". He secured, from a divided and loosely organised Cabinet, intensification and prolongation of the British involvement beyond the wishes of any major group in Parliament or the nation — and in the face of the bitter hostility of Labour. In 1920, after the last British forces had been withdrawn, Churchill was instrumental in having arms sent to the Poles when they invaded Ukraine.

He became Secretary of State for the Colonies in 1921 and was a signatory of the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921, which established the Irish Free State. Churchill always disliked Éamon de Valera, the Sinn Féin leader. Churchill, to protect British maritime interests engineered the Irish Free State agreement to include three "Treaty Ports" which could be used as Atlantic bases by the Royal Navy.

As Colonial Secretary he advocated the use of poison gas against tribesmen revolting in what was soon to become Iraq. He did however set up a Middle East Department of the Colonial Office and under the instigation of T E Lawrence he supported the claims of Feisal and Abdullah as Kings of Iraq and Jordan respectively,

Career between the wars

Second crossing of the floor

In 1920, as Secretary for War and Air, Churchill had responsibility for using air power to quell the rebellion of Kurds and Arabs in British-occupied Iraq.

With the 1922 election looming, Churchill's Liberal Party was internally split. He lost badly, and lost again (as a Liberal) in 1923 and as an independent in a by-election. Running in 1924 as a "Constitutionalist" with Conservative backing, he was elected to represent Epping. In 1925, he formally rejoined the Conservative Party, commenting wryly that "Anyone can rat [change parties], but it takes a certain ingenuity to re-rat."

Chancellor of the Exchequer

He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1924 under Stanley Baldwin and oversaw Britain's disastrous return to the Gold Standard, which resulted in deflation, unemployment, and the miners' strike that led to the General Strike of 1926. This decision prompted the economist John Maynard Keynes to write The Economic Consequences of Mr. Churchill, arguing that the return to the gold standard at the pre-war parity in 1925 (£1=$4.86) would lead to a world depression. During the "General Strike of 1926", Churchill helped break the strike arguing that "either the country will break the General Strike, or the General Strike will break the country."

Political isolation

The Conservative government was defeated in the 1929 General Election. In the next two years, Churchill became estranged from the Conservative leadership over the issues of protective tariffs and Indian Home Rule, which he bitterly opposed. When Ramsay MacDonald formed the National Government in 1931, Churchill was not invited to join the Cabinet. He was now at the low point in his career, in a period known as "the wilderness years".

He spent much of the next few years concentrating on his writing, including Marlborough: His Life and Times — a biography of his ancestor and A History of the English Speaking Peoples (which was not published until after World War II). When struck by a taxi he wrote an article about the experience. He supported himself largely by his writing and lectures and was one of the best paid writers of his time.

His military experience in India led him to vigorously oppose the granting of independence to India. He denigrated the Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi, as "a half-naked fakir." He helped found the India Defence League a group dedicated to the preservation of British power in India. He warned of widespread unemployment in Britain and civil strife in India should independence be granted to India.

Churchill was always an indefatigable advocate and actor of Anglo-American cooperation, with the constant argument that this policy was in the best interest of Britain. His mother was an American, and he made 16 trips to the U.S., at first for lectures and book promotions. He summed up his sense of two kindred nations in his 4-colume History of the English Speaking Peoples, written mostly in the 1930s, but lamented they had failed to cooperate stop the rise of Hitler. He made the theme of the first volume of his World War II history, "How the English-speaking Peoples through their Unwisdom, Carelessness and Good Nature allowed the Wicked to Rearm."

By the mid 1930s Churchill started warning against Adolf Hitler and the dangers of Germany's rearmament. Churchill was a fierce critic of Neville Chamberlain's appeasement of Hitler, leading the wing of the Conservative Party that opposed the Munich Agreement which Chamberlain famously declared to mean "peace in our time". He was also an outspoken supporter of King Edward VIII during the Abdication Crisis, leading to some speculation that he might be appointed Prime Minister if the King refused to take Baldwin's advice and consequently the government resigned. However, this did not happen, and Churchill found himself politically isolated and bruised for some time after this.

Role as wartime Prime Minister

"Winston is back"

After the outbreak of World War II Churchill was appointed First Lord of the Admiralty and a member of the 5-man War Cabinet. The Navy sent out the signal: "Winston is back." In this job, he proved to be one of the highest-profile ministers during the so-called "Phony War", when the only noticeable action was at sea. Churchill advocated dangerous policies, including sending a battle fleet into the Baltic, and mining the Norwegian harbors through which Swedish iron ore was shipped to Germany. The Norwegian intervention was attempted but was upstaged by the Germans, who forced the British to retreat from Norway.

On 10 May 1940, (hours before the German invasion of France), it became clear that following repeated failures, the nation had lost confidence in Chamberlain's prosecution of the war and so Chamberlain resigned. The only alternative to Churchill was Lord Halifax, the foreign minister, who did not want the job and who favoured peace negotiations with a much stronger Germany. Churchill did want it and won the approval of Labour and the Liberals, who agreed with him that Britain must fight on.

When the Germans moved west in May 1940 there were 144 Allied divisions on the Western Front: 104 were French, 22 Belgian, 10 British, and eight Dutch. The British had not yet mobilized their manpower and hurriedly retreated when the French army was split in half and crumbled. At the end of May 250,000 British troops and 100,000 French were withdrawn through Dunkirk, leaving all their equipment and arms behind. The Allies had been decisively defeated. France signed an armistice making the new regime, called "Vichy France," in effect an ally of the Germans, albeit neutral. Churchill, fearing the Germans would acquire the French fleet, destroyed the main units at Oran on July 3. At the same time the "special relationship" with Roosevelt started paying off as the first major shipments of weapons arrived from the U.S., including 500,000 rifles and 80,000 machine guns. In September the unofficial American ally gave Churchill 50 destroyers to help hunt U-boats.

Battle of Britain

The Battle of Britain began in August, as German light and medium bombers attacked British airfields, and u-boats attacked shipping. The first critical "secret weapon" of the war, radar, now went into operation, allowing the Royal Air Force (RAF) to parry the attacks. When Hitler ordered the bombing of Berlin, the Germans fell into the trap by retaliating with a "blitz" or air raids against London. Attacking civilians instead of the RAF was a fatal mistake for the Luftwaffe, as the RAF replaced its losses and the Luftwaffe grew weaker, finally abandoning the air attack. Fears of an invasion across the English Channel faded--the risk was small as long as the Royal Navy controlled the seas.

As American munitions pured in, the British credit of $6.5 billion evaporated; Roosevelt solved that crisis in spring 1941 with "Lend Lease," whereby $50 billion in munitions and supplies were given to the Allies, primarily Britain, in 1941-45.

Churchill's rejected the Halifax proposal to negotiate when Germany had the upper hand. Churchill rallied public opinion and kept democracy alive in Britain. The long-term goal was to turn Britain into the platform for the supply of Soviet Russia and the liberation of Western Europe.

Churchill created and took the additional position of Minister of Defence. He immediately put his friend and confidant, the industrialist and newspaper baron Lord Beaverbrook, in charge of aircraft production. It was Beaverbrook's business acumen that allowed Britain to quickly gear up aircraft production and engineering that by 1942 gave the Allies a better air force than the Luftwaffe.

Churchill's speeches proved a profound inspiration to the embattled British. His first speech as Prime Minister said "I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears, and sweat" speech. Later he pledged, "We shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the streets, we shall fight in the hills; we shall never surrender." "Let us therefore brace ourselves to our duties, and so bear ourselves that, if the British Empire and its Commonwealth last for a thousand years, men will still say, 'This was their finest hour.' "

At the height of the Battle of Britain, his bracing survey of the situation included the memorable line "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few."On 10 November 1942 Churchill perceptively concluded:

"This is not the end. It is not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning."

"Rhetorical power," wrote Churchill, "is neither wholly bestowed, nor wholly acquired, but cultivated."

Relations with the United States

Churchill and Roosevelt's relationship as depicted in a statue situated between Old Bond Street and New Bond Street, London.

Churchill had 12 strategic conferences with Roosevelt which covered the Atlantic Charter, the "Europe First" strategy, the "Declaration by the United Nations" and other war policies. Churchill initiated the Special Operations Executive (SOE) under Hugh Dalton's Ministry of Economic Warfare, which ran subversive and partisan operations in occupied Europe with notable success. He created the Commandos, setting the pattern for most of the world's current Special Forces.

Churchill's health suffered, as shown by a mild heart attack he suffered in December 1941 at the White House and also in December 1943 when he contracted pneumonia. Despite this, he travelled over 100,000 miles throughout the war to meet other national leaders.

Postwar plans

Churchill was party to treaties that would redraw post-World War II European and Asian boundaries. These were discussed as early as 1943. Proposals for European boundaries and settlements were officially agreed to by Harry S. Truman, Churchill, and Stalin at Potsdam. At the second Quebec Conference in 1944 he drafted and together with U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed a toned down version of the original Morgenthau Plan, where they pledged to convert Germany after its unconditional surrender "into a country primarily agricultural and pastoral in its character."

Relations with the Soviet Union

The settlement concerning the borders of Poland, that is, the Curzon line (boundary between Poland and the Soviet Union) and the Oder-Neisse line (between Germany and Poland) upset the Polish government in exile in London. Churchill was convinced that the only way to alleviate tensions between the two populations was the transfer of people, to match the national borders. As he expounded in the House of Commons in 1944, "Expulsion is the method which, insofar as we have been able to see, will be the most satisfactory and lasting. There will be no mixture of populations to cause endless trouble... A clean sweep will be made. I am not alarmed by these transferences, which are more possible in modern conditions." However the resulting expulsions of Germans was carried out by the Soviet Union in a way which resulted in much hardship and, according to a 1966 report by the West German Ministry of Refugees and Displaced Persons, the death of over 2,100,000. Churchill opposed the effective annexation of Poland by the Soviet Union and wrote bitterly about it in his books, but he was unable to prevent it at the conferences.

In October, 1944, he and Eden were in Moscow meeting witn Joseph Stalin, without the Americans. Bargaining went on throughout the night. Churchill wrote on a piece of paper that Stalin had a 90 percent "interest" in Romania, Britain a 90 percent "interest" in Greece and a 100 percent "interest" in Italy, both Russia and Britain a 50 percent "interest" in Yugoslavia. The crucial questions arose when the Ministers of Foreign Affairs discussed "percentages" in Eastern Europe. Molotov's proposals were that Russia should have a 75 percent interest in Hungary, 75 percent in Bulgaria, and 60 percent in Yugoslavia. This was Stalin's price for ceding Italy and Greece. Eden tried to haggle: Hungary 75/25, Bulgaria 80/20, but Yugoslavia 50/50. After lengthy bargaining they settled on an 80/20 division of interest between Russia and Britain in Bulgaria and Hungary, and a 50/50 division in Yugoslavia. This gentleman's agreement was sealed with a handshake, but Stalin cashed in Churchill's supposed shares and the agreement came to naught.

After World War II

Although the importance of Churchill's role in World War II was undeniable, his domestic positions were unpopular. he had many enemies in his own country. His expressed contempt for a number of popular ideas, in particular public health care and expanded schooling. better education for the majority of the population, hurt his standing. Churchill and his party were surprised by a landslide defeat in the 1945 election. Some historians argue that many British voters believed that the man who had led the nation so well in war was not the best man to lead it in peace. Others see the election result as a reaction not against Churchill personally, but against the Conservative Party's record in the 1930s under Baldwin and Chamberlain. During the opening broadcast of the election campaign Churchill astonished many of his admirers by warning that a Labour government would introduce into Britain "some form of Gestapo, no doubt humanely administered in the first instance". Churchill had been genuinely worried during the war by the inroads of state bureaucracy into civil liberty, and was clearly influenced by Friedrich Hayek's anti-totalitarian tract, The Road to Serfdom (1944).

Churchill was an early supporter of the pan-Europeanism that eventually led to the formation of the European Common Market and later the European Union (for which one of the three main buildings of the European Parliament is named in his honour).

Churchill pushed the U.S. into realization that Soviet Communism was an aggressive threat. In a major speech in Missouri, on 5 March 1946, he declared:

From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an Iron Curtain has descended across the continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia, all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere.

His history of World War II, appearing in 6 large volumes (1948-1953), was a publishing sensation and best-seller in many countries; it was translated int o 18 languages. It solidified his identification with the war.

Second term

After Labour's defeat in the General Election of 1951, Churchill again became Prime Minister, serving until his resignation in 1955. He renewed the "special relationship" between Britain and the United States, and engaged himself in the formation of the post-war order. On racial questions, Churchill was still a late Victorian. He tried in vain to manoeuvre the cabinet into restricting West Indian immigration. "Keep England White" was a good slogan, he told the cabinet in January 1955.

A series of foreign policy crises were partly the result of the continued decline of British military and imperial prestige and power. Being a strong proponent of Britain as an international power, Churchill would often meet such moments with direct action. Trying to retain what he could of the Empire, he once stated that, "I will not preside over a dismemberment."

Quelling rebellions in Kenya and Malaya

In 1952, the Mau Mau rebellion led to a crisis in Kenya; Churchill sent in British troops to deal with the rebellion. As both sides increased the ferocity of their attacks, the country moved to full-scale civil war. In 1953, the Lari massacre, perpetrated by Mau-Mau insurgents against Kikuyu loyal to the British, damaged the rebels' prestige. Churchill's strategy was to use a military stick combined with implementing many of the concessions that Attlee's government had blocked in 1951. He ordered an increased military presence that implemented Operation Anvil in 1954; it broke the back of the rebellion in the city of Nairobi. Operation Hammer, in turn, was designed to root out rebels in the countryside. Churchill ordered peace talks opened, but these collapsed shortly after his leaving office.

In Malaya, a rebellion based on Communist and Chinese elements, had been in progress since 1948. Once again, Churchill's government inherited a crisis, and once again Churchill chose to use direct military action against those in rebellion while attempting to build an alliance with those who were not. He stepped up the implementation of a "hearts and minds" campaign and approved the creation of fortified villages, a tactic that would become a recurring part of Western military strategy in South-east Asia, but was less successful in the American Vietnam War.

The "Malayan Emergency" was a more direct case of a guerrilla movement, centred in the Chinese community and backed by the Soviet Union. As such, Britain's policy of direct confrontation and military victory had a great deal more support than in Iran or in Kenya. At the highpoint of the conflict, over 35,500 British troops were stationed in Malaya. As the rebellion lost ground, it began to lose favour with the local population. While the rebellion was slowly being defeated, it was equally clear that colonial rule from Britain was no longer plausible. In 1953, plans were drawn up for independence for Singapore and the other crown colonies in the region. The first elections were held in 1955, just days before Churchill's own resignation.

Family and personal life

On 12 September, 1908, Churchill married Clementine Hozier, granddaughter of the 7th Earl of Airlie. They had five children: Diana; Randolph; Sarah; Marigold]] (1918–21); and Mary. Churchill's son Randolph and his grandsons Parliament. The daughters tended to marry politicians and support their careers. When not in London, Churchill usually lived at his beloved Chartwell House in Kent, two miles south of Westerham. He and his wife bought the house in 1922 and lived there until his death in 1965. During his Chartwell stays, he enjoyed writing as well as painting, bricklaying, and admiring the estate's famous black swans.

As a painter he was prolific, with over 570 paintings and two sculptures; he received a Diploma from the Royal Academy of London. Like many politicians of his age, Churchill was also a member of several English gentlemen's clubs; he spent relatively little time in each of these, and preferred to conduct any lunchtime or dinner meetings at the Savoy Grill or the Ritz hotel, or else in the Members' Dining Room of the House of Commons when meeting other MPs.

Churchill's fondness for alcoholic beverages was well-documented. He consumed alcoholic drinks on a near-daily basis for long periods in his life, and frequently imbibed before, after, and during mealtimes. He is not generally considered by historians to have been an alcoholic.

• For much of his life, Churchill battled with depression (or perhaps a sub-type of manic-depression), which he called his black dog.

• Churchill was recognised for his trademark cigar, suit with bow tie and his red hair, (which became sandy as he grew older).

Last days

Aware that he was slowing down both physically and mentally; he suffered a stroke in June 1953, when he was 78. Churchill retired as Prime Minister in 1955 and was succeeded by Anthony Eden, who had long been his ambitious protégé (three years earlier, Eden had married Churchill's niece). Churchill declined a dukedom to stay in the House, sometimes voting in parliamentary divisions, but never again speaking there. In 1959, he became Father of the House, the MP with the longest continuous service. Churchill spent most of his retirement at Chartwell House in Kent.

Churchill's final years were melancholy. He never resolved the love–hate relationship between himself and his son. Sarah was descending into alcoholism and Diana committed suicide in the autumn of 1964. Churchill himself suffered a number of minor strokes. It was a figure ravaged by age and sorrow who appeared at the window of his London home, 28 Hyde Park Gate, to greet the photographers on his ninetieth birthday in November 1964.

On 15 January, 1965, Churchill suffered another stroke — a severe cerebral thrombosis; he died at his home nine days later, at age 90. His body lay in state for three days and a state funeral service was held at St Paul's Cathedral. This was the first state funeral for a non-royal family member since 1914, and no other of its kind has been held since. He was buried in the family plot at St Martin's Church, Bladon, near Woodstock, not far from his birthplace at Blenheim. Churchill's estate was probated at £304,044.

Churchill as historian

Churchill wrote Lord Randolph Churchill, a two-volume biography of his father which was published in 1906 and received much critical acclaim. Some historians suggest Churchill used the book in part to vindicate his own career and in particular to justify crossing the floor. His The World Crisis (six volumes, 1923–31) was a broad-scale history of the First World War, with Churchill never far offstage. His greatest work was , The Second World War (six volumes, 1948–53), using secret papers not available to other for many years; he did not reveal the prime secret of breaking the German codes (which was revealed in the early 1970s). Churchill's highly detailed narrative structured much of the historiography for the first decade or two after the war, especially in his analysis and denunciation of the appeasement policy of the late 1930s.

Bibliography

Biographies

• Addison, Paul. "Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard Spencer (1874–1965)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, online
• Addison, Paul. Churchill: The Unexpected Hero. 2005. 320 pp.
• Best, Geoffrey. Churchill: A Study in Greatness (2003), 400pp; very well received biography
• Blake, Robert. Winston Churchill. Pocket Biographies (1997), 110 pages
• Charmley, John. Churchill, The End of Glory: A Political Biography (1993). revisionist; favors Chamberlain; says Churchill weakened Britain
• Gilbert, Martin. Churchill: A Life (1992); one volume version of 8-volume life (8900 pp); amazing detail but as Rasor complains, "no background, no context, no comment, no analysis, no judgments, no evaluation, and no insights."
• Heywood, Samantha. Churchill (2003) 162 pp, online edition
• James, Robert Rhodes. Churchill: A Study in Failure, 1900-1939 (1970), 400 pp.
• Jenkins, Roy. Churchill: A Biography (2001), 1000 pp; strong on Parliamentary roles
• Keegan, John. Winston Churchill (2002) 208 pp online excerpt
• Krockow, Christian. Churchill: Man of the Century 2000
• Manchester, William. The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill, Visions of Glory 1874-1932, 1983; vol 2 is The Last Lion: Winston Spencer Churchill, Alone 1932-1940, 1988,; no more published
• Pelling, Henry. Winston Churchill (1974), 736pp; comprehensive biography
• Rose, Norman. Churchill: An Unruly Life (1994), full-length biography
• Wrigley, Chris. Winston Churchill: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO, 2002. 367 pp.

Specialized studies

• Addison, Paul. Churchill on the Home Front 1900-1955 (1992)
• Ball, Stuart. "Churchill and the Conservative Party," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 307-330 in JSTOR
• Bell, Christopher M. "Winston Churchill, Pacific Security, and the Limits of British Power, 1921-41," in John H. Maurer, ed. Churchill and Strategic Dilemmas before the World Wars (2003) pp 51-120 online edition
• Ben-Moshe, Tuvia. Churchill, Strategy and History. 1992, covers world wars online edition
• Beschloss, Michael R. The Conquerors: Roosevelt, Truman and the Destruction of Hitler's Germany, 1941-1945 (2002)
• Best, Geoffrey. Churchill and War. 2005. 353 pp.
• Blake, Robert and Louis William Roger, eds. Churchill: A Major New Reassessment of His Life in Peace and War Oxford UP, 1992, 581 pp; 29 essays by scholars on specialized topicsonline edition
• Callahan, Raymond. Churchill and His Generals, (2007) 310pp
• Cannadine, David. "Churchill and the British Monarchy," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 249-272 in JSTOR
• Charmley, John. Churchill's Grand Alliance: The Anglo-American Special Relationship 1940-57 (1996)
• Charmley, John. "Churchill and the American Alliance," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 353-371 in JSTOR
• Danchev, Alex. "'Dilly-Dally', or Having the Last Word: Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Prime Minister Winston Churchill," Journal of Contemporary History Vol. 22, No. 1 (Jan., 1987), pp. 21-44 in JSTOR
• Delaney, Douglas E. "Churchill and the Mediterranean Strategy: December 1941 to January 1943." Defence Studies 2002 2(3): 1-26. Issn: 1470-2436 Fulltext: in Ebsco
• Gilbert, Martin. Churchill and America 2005. 352 pp.
• Gorodetsky, Gabriel. "The Origins of the Cold War: Stalin, Churchill and the Formation of the Grand Alliance," Russian Review Vol. 47, No. 2 (Apr., 1988), pp. 145-170 in JSTOR 7
• Jablonsky, David. "Churchill and Technology," in John H. Maurer, ed. Churchill and Strategic Dilemmas before the World Wars (2003) pp 121-158 online edition
• Keegan, John, ed. Churchill's Generals (1991) 17 essays by experts
• Kersaudy, François. Churchill and De Gaulle 1981
• Kimball, Warren. Forged in war: Churchill, Roosevelt and the Second World War (1997)
• Lambakis, Steven James. Winston Churchill, Architect of Peace: A Study of Statesmanship and the Cold War (1994) 194 pp. online edition
• Larres, Klaus. Churchill's Cold War: The Politics of Personal Diplomacy. Yale U. Press, 2002. 569 pp.
• Lawlor, Sheila. Churchill and the politics of war, 1940–1941 (1993)
• Lewin, Ronald. Churchill as warlord (1973)
• Lukacs, John. Churchill: Visionary, Statesman, Historian 2002. 202pp, interpretive essays
• Marder, Arthur. Winston is back: Churchill at the admiralty, 1939–1940 (1973)
• Massie, Robert Dreadnought: Britain, Germany and the Coming of the Great War; ch 40-41 on Churchill at Admiralty
• Maurer, John H. "The 'Ever-Present Danger': Winston Churchill's Assessment of the German Naval Challenge before the First World War" in John H. Maurer, ed. Churchill and Strategic Dilemmas before the World Wars (2003) pp 7-50 online edition
• Miner, Steven Merritt. Between Churchill and Stalin: The Soviet Union, Great Britain, and the Origins of the Grand Alliance (1988) online edition
• Parker, R. A. C. ed. Winston Churchill: studies in statesmanship (1995), scholarly studies
• Parker, R. A. C. Churchill and appeasement (2000)
• Wrigley, Chris. "Churchill and the Trade Unions," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 273-293 in JSTOR
• Young, John W. Winston Churchill's Last Campaign: Britain and the Cold War, 1951-5 1996 online edition
• Young, John W. "Churchill and East-West Detente," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society 6th Ser., Vol. 11 (2001), pp. 373-392 in JSTOR

Historiography

• Ashley, Maurice. "Churchill and History," International Affairs Vol. 42, No. 1. (Jan., 1966), pp. 87-94. in JSTOR, Churchill as author
• Ramsden, John. Man of the Century: Winston Churchill and His Legend since 1945. Columbia U. Press, 2003. 672 pp.
• Rasor, Eugene L. Winston S. Churchill, 1874-1965: A Comprehensive Historiography and Annotated Bibliography. Greenwood Press. 2000. 710 pp. describes several thousand books and scholarly articles. online edition
• Reynolds, David. In Command of History: Churchill Fighting and Writing the Second World War. 2005. 631 pp.
• Reynolds, David. "Churchill's writing of history: appeasement, autobiography and The Gathering Storm", Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th ser., 11 (2001), 221–48 online edition
• Stansky, Peter, ed. Churchill: A Profile 1973, 270 pp. essays for and against Churchill by leading scholars
• Wood, Ian S. Churchill 2000. 209pp evaluates numerous studies

Primary sources

• Churchill, Winston. Lord Randolph Churchill (1906) online edition
• Churchill, Winston. The World Crisis (six volumes, 1923–31), 1-vol edition (2005); on World War I. Vol. I, 1911-1914; Vol. II, 1915; Vol. III, 1916-1918 Part I; Vol. IV, 1916-1918 Part II; and Vol. V: The Aftermath.
• Churchill, Winston. The Second World War (six volumes, 1948–53); Vol. I, The Gathering Storm; Vol. II, Their Finest Hour; Vol. III, The Grand Alliance; Vol. IV, The Hinge of Fate; Vol. V, Closing the Ring; and Vol. VI, Triumph and Tragedy
• Churchill, Winston. Lord Randolph Churchill (1907) online edition, biography of his father
• Gilbert, Martin, ed. Winston S. Churchill: Companion 15 vol (14,000 pages) of Churchill and other official and unofficial documents. Part 1: I. Youth, 1874-1900, 1966, 654 pp. (2 vol); II. Young Statesman, 1901-1914, 1967, 796 pp. (3 vol); III. The Challenge of War, 1914-1916, 1971, 1024 pp. (3 vol); IV. The Stricken World, 1916-1922, 1975, 984 pp. (2 vol); Part 2: The Prophet of Truth, 1923-1939, 1977, 1195 pp. (3 vol); II. Finest Hour, 1939-1941, 1983, 1328 pp. (2 vol entitled The Churchill War Papers); III. Road to Victory, 1941-1945, 1986, 1437 pp. (not published, 4 volumes are anticipated); IV. Never Despair, 1945-1965, 1988, 1438 pp. (not published, 3 volumes anticipated, See the editor's memoir, Martin Gilbert, In Search of Churchill: A Historian's Journey, (1994).
• James, Robert Rhodes, ed. Winston S. Churchill: His Complete Speeches, 1897-1963. 8 vols. London: Chelsea, 1974, 8917 pp.
• David Coombs, Sir Winston Churchill, His life through his paintings, Pegasus, 2003
• Winston Churchill. Victory: War Speeches by the Right Hon. Winston S. Churchill, (1946) online edition
• Winston Churchill and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt and Churchill: Their Secret Wartime Correspondence ed by Francis L. Loewenheim, Harold D. Langley and Manfred Jonas (1975) 807 pgs online edition
• Winston Churchill and Dwight D. Eisenhower. The Churchill-Eisenhower Correspondence, 1953-1955 ed by Peter G. Boyle; University of North Carolina Press, 1990 online edition
• Winston Churchill and Harry S. Truman. Defending the West: The Truman-Churchill Correspondence, 1945-1960 ed by G. W. Sand; (2004) online edition

External links

• Works by Winston Churchill at Project Gutenberg
• Churchill College Biography of Winston Churchill
• Books written by Churchill
• Imperial War Museum: Churchill Museum and Cabinet War Rooms. Comprising the original underground War Rooms perfectly preserved since 1945, from which Churchill ran the War, including the Cabinet Room, the Map Room and Churchill's bedroom, and the new Museum dedicated to Churchill's life.
• Winston Churchill Chronology World History Database
• Churchill Archives Centre, based at Churchill College, Cambridge
• Churchill and the Great Republic. WC'a lifelong relationship with the United States.
• documents edited by the National Library of Scotland
• Audio about the Winston Churchill Memorial and Library at Westminster College in Fulton, Missouri from the Speaking of History podcast #17 - site also includes video slideshow of the museum
• War Cabinet Minutes (1942 - 42), (1942 - 43), (1945 - 46), (1946 - 46)
• MCE European NAvigator European Union History tool, contains a number of Churchill recordings etc.

Speeches

• http://www.churchill-speeches.com/
• Audio of Churchill's "finest hour" speech
• Timeline of the Spencer-Churchill family
• Winston Churchill Audio Soundboard