Psychology

Psychology is the study of internal processes and behaviour. There is a primary division between clinical or applied psychology which focuses on helping people directly through various applications of theory and experimental or research oriented psychology which focuses on applying the scientific method to ascertain the foundations of thought and action.

Paradigms of Psychology

Psychology has traditionally emphasized the concept of different major paradigms for the different theories on the underlying uniting concepts for the field. These paradigms often represent both historical movements as well as themes in which current practitioners and researchers work in. Some of the major paradigms in psychology have included:

• Cognitive psychology- This school of thought has a strong focus on understanding the mechanisms of mind in order to explain behavior. It often uses analogies to computers to accomplish this task, one of its great themes is the idea of the Computational Theory of Mind.

• Behavioral psychology- This school of thought views the mind of the organism as a black box which is impossible to describe empirically, therefore the focus is on understanding behavior as a byproduct of environment. Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner epitomize this philosophy with their focus on classical conditioning and instrumental learning.

• Psychoanalytic psychology- This school of thought attempts to understand mind and behavior as a product of the unconscious. It is most closely linked with the ideas of Sigmund Freud and Carl Jung. Freud believed that much of behavior is related to repressed sexuality, while Jung and others extended his ideas to include other forms of repression. Psychoanalytic psychology is primarily used in clinical settings though it is not unheard of for researchers to appeal to Freudian concepts.

• Existential psychology and Humanistic psychology- While these schools of thought differ in some fundamental ways they are often linked together because of their focus on differences and the importance of the individual over generalized rules. Existential Psychology emerges from French Existential philosophy most notably linked to Jean-Paul Sartre. It places great importance on Existential angst as an inevitability of existence, and that the role of psychology is to help individuals recognize their angst and come to terms with it. Humanistic approaches to psychology are closely linked to the ideas of Abraham Maslow and his idea of the Hierarchy of Needs. To Maslow psychological illness is a consequence of the difference between the idealized self and the actual self, the role of the psychologist is to help the person either adjust his idealized self image or improve his actual self. Carl Roger's ideas of Client Centered Therapy are also closely linked to humanistic approaches.

• Evolutionary psychology and Biologic based psychology- These approaches attempt to understand mind and behavior as products of biologic interactions and evolutionary history. This school of thought is heavily researched based. Evolutionary Psychology is a relatively recent development, and many of its proponents believe that a strongly biologic approach to psychology may ultimately serve as a unifying principle for the field of psychology.

History

Foundation of the Field

Psychology is viewed as a relatively young discipline. The start of the modern concept is often attributed to Wilhelm Wundt (the "father of psychology"). Wundt attempted to quantify human thought into basic elements, he was inspired by the success of chemistry and physics in describing the world by component pieces such as atoms and elements. Wundt also founded the first modern laboratory for the study of psychology. This was done in 1879 at Leipzig University in Germany. Wundt's ideas were picked up by his student Edward B. Titchener who coined the term structuralism to describe it. Structuralism would come to dominate the study of psychology for most of the late 19th century and early 20th century.

Structuralism's goal was to describe all of Wundt's elements of thought. It used a technique called introspection, where volunteers were trained to breakdown their thoughts into basic elements and then shown various objects or exposed to various concepts and asked to describe the basic elements of their thoughts. For example, if shown a book a subject would attempt to describe the elements of what he is seeing by shape, and color but with out reference to higher order concepts such as "binding", "cover" or "pages."

The use of introspection and structuralism's seemingly inherent subjectiveness created a backlash that developed into a the concept of functionalism. This idea is most famously put forth by William James. It attempted to understand mind and behavior not as a "how" but as a "why." It was heavily influenced by Charles Darwin and the Theory of evolution. It would later serve as the foundation for the behaviorist movement.

At the same time that structuralism and functionalism were being developed and debated Sigmund Freud was developing his ideas. Psychodynamics had an enormous influence on psychology and in many ways that influence continues to this day. While many of his ideas have been discredited Freud also was the first to introduce several core ideas into the field. These include: the concept of an unconscious mind being able to change and direct behavior, and that people go through developmental stages in which their mind and behavior change as they grow up and grow old.

Development of Behaviorism

At the turn of the century Ivan Pavlov started his work on the gastric reflex in dogs. He discovered that a salivary response could be activated by a cue such as a bell ringing if that cue was linked to the presentation of food. This concept was developed into the idea of classical conditioning. This work was absolutely pivotal in the history of psychology. It became combined with the concepts developed in functionalism and the field of behavioral psychology was born. Behavioral psychology was, in many ways, a reaction to the introspection, subjective based methods of structuralist and their goal of understanding the elements of the mind. Behaviorist abandoned the concept of mind as a scientific concept all together. Instead they attempted to describe all behavior as merely the product of inputs from the environment and outputs from the organism. The mind was viewed as a black box and never examined.

Pavlov, and later B.F. Skinner, as well as many others were able to formulate precise mathematical descriptions of training regimes and reactions. It was hoped that psychology could became a hard science like physics with mathematically rigorous theories. Skinner is most known for his work with operational conditioning or instrumental learning where small changes in behavior are rewarded in order to create complex behavior. This is perhaps most epitomized by the Skinner box in which he trained pigeons to perform many complex actions to get rewards.

Skinner also thought that all of human behavior was a function of conditioning and instrumental learning. He wrote several non-fiction books such as Beyond Freedom and Dignity (rumor has it that he enjoyed placing his initials B.F. at th start of his works) and several fiction books including Waldon 2 advocating the creation of Utopian societies based on instrumental learning.

The Cognitive Revolution

During the 1960s several developments altered the course of psychological research. The first was the creation of the computer and the ideas of Alan Turing. People quickly saw the analogy between computers and the human brain and thought that perhaps a mathematically rigorous concept of the mind could be developed. On another front several experiments had begin turning up anomalous results. One of the most famous is the Garcia effect where an animal that is exposed to a novel food and then made sick instantly learns to no longer desire that food, however, if it is a food the animal has plenty of pre-exposure to it did not instantly acquire the conditioned dislike. This instantaneous acquisition in one condition and not in another could not be explained without cracking open the black box of the mind and allowing it to effect behavior.

Noam Chomsky is also challenged the behaviorists. Skinner's functional analysis of language described the acquisition of language as instrumental learning, but Chomsky provided counter-examples which he believed showed that Skinner's explanation was incomplete. Among the examples were errors that children make when learning grammar. Chomsky pointed out that children often will attempt to apply a grammatical rule universally and say something like "I runned to the store." Perhaps more persuasive was the observation that children learn language at a speed that a functional theory cannot account for. Attempts to model language acquisition on computers that could make similar errors required certain innate rule sets existing at the beginning of language acquisition. Many behaviorists objected that Chomsky had missed Skinner's point, but the structural theory that Chomsky offered as an alternative to Skinner's functional one was widely influential.

Thus cognitive psychology was born as a reaction against behaviorist. Cognitive psychologist attempted to understand the black box of the mind through computational analysis, modeling and rigorous experimentation. Also during this time clinical psychology was having its own revolution with psychoanalysis being questioned by existential and humanist approaches.

Developments to the present

In addition to cognitive psychology social psychology was also coming into its own. Stanley Milgram published his works on the Milgram experiment which demonstrated that normal individuals would obey an authority figure and endanger the health and life of other people. This was also linked to Philip Zimbardo's work on the Stanford prison experiment demonstrating the ability for college students to quickly turn into torturers. Other important concepts such as diffusion of responsibility and cognitive dissonance were being developed in experimental laboratories. In the 1970s E.O. Wilson published his book on sociobiology, this work as well as much of the work in social psychology got picked up by researchers with a strong biologic and evolutionary influence. It ultimately emerged as the field of Evolutionary psychology in the late 1980's and is currently one of the most hotly contested and productive areas of psychological research.

Technological developments during the last 30 years have also drastically altered the field of psychology. Computer processing power and memory increases have allowed researchers to develop models of many areas of cognition. More importantly imaging techniques that allowed psychologist to non-invasively peer into the mind of living people and see what areas are functionally active have revolutionized much of psychology.

Clinical work on psychotropic drugs for treatment of various psychosis such as schizophrenia, bi-polar and depression have also allowed researchers to start to understand the neurochemistry involved.

Fields of Psychology

While embracing one or several (referred to as eclectic) of the paradigms listed earlier individual psychologist, researchers and therapist can work in a range of sub-fields that deal with the total spectrum of human interactions. These include but are not limited to:

• Community psychology

• Affective psychology

• Developmental psychology is the study of how mental processes and behavior change with age. One version--"child" psychology--focuses on changes from birth through adolescence; another version--lifespan human development--includes changes throughout adulthood and old age.

• Educational psychology focuses on topics related to teaching, learning, and classroom-based experiences in general. Its most central areas are motivation, classroom learning processes, assessment of learning, social processes in classrooms, and diversity among learners.

• Health psychology/behavioral medicine focuses on the impact of psychological factors on behaviors that are relevant to physical health. Researchers in this field study topics such as substance abuse, obesity, and exercise.

• Industrial/organizational psychology

• Neuroscience

• Social psychology is the study of social behavior or interpersonal interactions. Social psychologists study issues such as the way in which attitudes towards other people are formed, or the effect that our perceptions of another person's behavior have on our interactions with that person.

• Abnormal psychology