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'''Jesus''' (or '''Jesus Christ''') was a [[Palestine | Palestinian]] [[Jew]]ish religious figure whom [[Roman Empire | Roman]] authorities executed by [[crucifixion]] around AD 30 or 33. He is remembered as the founder of [[Christianity]], and as a [[prophet]] of [[Islam]].
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For many millions of people throughout the world, the story of Jesus's life is the embodiment of the ethical principles to which they aspire. Stripped of this religious heritage, the history of European art and music would be unimaginable. Translations of the [[Christian Bible]] number among the foundational literature of many languages. Events in Jesus's life are commemorated through vast public holidays such as [[Christmas]] and [[Easter]]. Most of the world now follows the [[Gregorian calendar]], which attempts to calculate the number of years elapsed since Jesus's birth.
By virtue of the impact of [[Christianity]], '''Jesus''' (also known as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth) is one of the most influential people in [[history]]. European [[literature]], [[art]] and [[music]] would be unimaginable without their Christian heritage, and translations of the Christian [[Bible]] number among the foundational literature of many languages. Most of the world now follows the [[Gregorian calendar]], based on the supposed number of years since Jesus' birth.
According to Christian tradition, his mother Mary was a [[Virgin Birth | Virgin]]; that he performed miracles; that he was the [[Messiah]] (Greek ''Christos'', the source of the title [[Christ]]); that his life fulfilled [[Old Testament]] [[List of Christian claims of fulfilled Old Testament prophecies | prophecies]]; and that he [[resurrection | rose from the dead]] and [[ascension | ascended]] into heaven, from whence he will one day [[Second Coming | return]]. Most Christians worship Jesus as the [[Son of God]], and as [[God]] incarnate, the Second Person of the [[Trinity]], and look to him for the salvation of their [[soul]]s. Thus for Christians, Jesus existed before the creation of the world, will reign after its end, and incorporates all Christians--perhaps all souls--into his "body" (identified with the church).


For historians however, very little is known for certain about the life of Jesus. A minimalist view would accept the description of Jesus as a wandering teacher, healer, and exorcist, active around [[Galilee]] and [[Judea]]. He was baptised by [[John the Baptist]], but left the Baptist movement, ultimately attracting his own [[disciple]]s as well as crowds of followers. Though often questioned about [[halakhah | Jewish law]], he was not regarded as strictly observant. He taught in parables, often of something called the [[Kingdom of God]] (or the [[Kingdom of Heaven]]). In his prayers he addressed God with the [[Aramaic]] equivalent of "Daddy" (''Abba''). His followers were drawn from the peasantry or artisan / retainer classes, and rarely from the social elite. He enjoyed no institutional recognition or sponsorship; rather the nature of his authority was charismatic.
The question "Who was Jesus?" seems a simple one, yet the answers which have been proposed defy easy summary. Most people regard him as the founder of Christianity. Christians (with some exceptions) worship him as God [[incarnation|incarnate]], the Second Person of the [[Trinity]]. [[Islam|Muslims]] recognize Jesus as one of the prophets of Islam, without attributing divinity to him. Even [[humanism|humanists]] who reject the religious claims, or who doubt the [[miracles]] attributed to him, have been known to admire Jesus as a great moral teacher. [[Mormonism|Mormons]] believe that Jesus came to [[North America]] and preached to the inhabitants after leaving [[Judea]]. [[Judaism|Jews]] do not believe that Jesus was divine, nor that he was the Messiah or a prophet.


The [[Qur'an]] recognizes Jesus ([[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''[[Islamic view of Jesus|Isa]]'') as one of the most important [[prophets of Islam]], and as a bringer of a divine scripture (which is not necessarily part of the extant [[New Testament]]). Muslims accept the Virgin Birth, and agree that Jesus is the messiah, but reject any attribution of divinity to him. Many Muslims doubt the crucifixion, and hold that Jesus will return to the earth in the company of the [[Mahdi]].
Among historians, almost every aspect of Jesus' life is either unknown or disputed. Most scholars would accept the description of him as a first-century Palestinian Jew--more specifically, as an itinerant preacher/healer/exorcist active in [[Galilee]] and Judea. We may be reasonably confident that he was baptized by [[John the Baptist]] in the AD 20s, and crucified at the command of Roman governor [[Pontius Pilate]] during the late 20s or early 30s AD. With less certainty, scholars have characterized Jesus as a wisdom teacher; a social reformer; a rabbi; a folk magician; or an apocalyptic who expected the world to end. Especially controversial would be the suggestions that he intended to found the religion of Christianity, or that he believed (or declared) himself to be the Messiah.  


==The Historical Jesus==
==Name==  
Since the [[Age of Enlightenment | Enlightenment]], various scholars have attempted to distinguish Jesus as a historical figure from the figure worshipped by Christianity. Initial projects (such as that of [[Hermann Samuel Reimarus]]) were motivated by [[rationalism]] and focused doubt on biblical accounts of miracles. David Friedrich Strauss and Ernest Renan saw Jesus as a great moral teacher whose views are best represented by the ''Sermon on the Mount''. [[Albert Schweizer]], objecting to the arbitrary neglect of apocalyptic verses, complains that scholars who set out on a "[[Quest for the Historical Jesus]]" tend to discover in him a reflection of their own views. In recent decades, the name "[[Jesus Studies]]" has come to describe historical (as opposed to primarily theological) approaches to the study of Jesus. Scholars in this field fall into much the same religious divisions as the wider population, though relative iconoclasts (e.g. the [[Jesus Seminar]], treated collectively) may be somewhat more visible. A list of some prominent scholars, together with summaries of their work, can be found [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/theories.html here].
Jesus has the same name as Old Testament hero [[Joshua]], whose Hebrew name ''Yehoshua'' (יהושוע) becomes ''Yeshua'' (ישוע) in [[Aramaic]] (Jesus' native language). [[Koine Greek|Greek]] being the lingua franca of the Roman Empire as well as early Christianity, ''Yeshua'' came to be rendered as ''Iesous'' (''Ιησους''). It entered English by way of Latin (''Iēsus''). <ref>John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew''. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205-7</ref>


===Sources===
''Christ'' is a title and not a part of his name. ''Christos'' (''χριστος'') is the Greek translation for the Hebrew ''[[Moshiach]]'' ("Messiah"), and literally means "anointed one." The original reference was to the family of ceremonies for crowning a king, or ordaining a prophet, which involved pouring oil upon the head. Whether these and other titles were used during his lifetime, or by him, and what they might have meant, are all uncertain.
The most important sources of information, the [[Four Evangelists | four canonical gospels]], have several shortcomings as historical sources:


*Their authors are not known (despite the titles assigned to them by church tradition); thus we have no way of knowing how an author acquired his information.
Jesus is often referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth," after the town where he grew up, sometimes as a secular alternative to "Jesus Christ."
*Their composition appears to involve multiple authorship and an active editorial process. For example, the [[synoptic gospels]] share much material, albeit rearranged.
*They appear to have been written at least a generation after Jesus's death. ([[Gospel of Mark |Mark]], the oldest, is usually dated around AD 68.)
*No first-century manuscripts survive.
*They report manysupernatural events, which many historians consider to be ''prima facia'' evidence of their unreliability.
*Their authors were committed believers, not disinterested observers.
*Some details (such as the [[Census of Quirinius]] mentioned in Luke 2:1) conflict with what we know of the history of the time.
*They show signs of adapting their stories to make theological points. For example, [[Gospel of Matthew | Matthew]] (21:1 ff) describes Jesus as entering Jerusalem while seated on not one but ''two'' animals, a donkey and a colt--this might be a misunderstanding of [[Zachariah]] 9:9, (which Matthew quotes).
*Some stories appear to have been inspired by Old Testament prototypes. For example, Christ's miracles in Matthew 8 and 9 parallel the miracles of [[Elisha]] in 2 Kings 4 - 6.


Several ancient authors who were not Christians mention Jesus. They are: [[Flavius Josephus]], [[Pliny the Younger]], [[Tacitus]], and [[Suetonius]]. With the possible exception of Josephus (and here the textual integity is a concern), their information about Jesus probably relies on Christian sources.  
==Dates==
None of the historical sources give the year of Jesus' birth, the year of his death, or his age at death in unambiguous form. Tradition says that he was born towards the end of the reign of [[Herod]] the Great, who died in 4 BC. Some of the earliest estimates of his birth are 6-7 BC, and it is widely agreed that  Jesus was executed during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36). Biblical scholars believe he lived roughly 33 1/2 years. Recent scholarship has focused on the years AD 29, 30, or 33 as the most likely possibilities of the date of his crucifixion.


[[Saint Paul]] apparently met some of Jesus's relatives and companions (though not Jesus himself, except through visions). Unfortunately, his [[epistle]]s offer almost no biographical details. [[Donald Harmon Akenson]] suggests that the teachings of Paul--especially those which are also attested in the earlier strata of the gospels--are likely to incorporate genuine Jesus traditions.
==Sources==
The major source of historical knowledge about Jesus is the Christian Gospels, which are based on documents written within living memory of the events described in them. The Letters of [[St Paul]], which are older than the Gospels, also attest to the historical reality of Jesus. There are no contemporary references to Jesus from non-Christian sources, although there are a few from the following decades, in writers such as [[Tacitus]] and [[Pliny the Younger]]. Some writers therefore deny that Jesus was a historical figure at all.  


Noncanonical Christian literature is voluminous but relatively late, with the following possible exceptions: the [[Gospel of Thomas]], the [[Unknown Berlin Gospel]], the [[Oxyrhynchus Gospels]], the [[Egerton Gospel]], the [[Fayyum Fragment]], the [[Dialogue of the Saviour]], the [[Gospel of the Ebionites]], the [[Gospel of the Hebrews]], and the [[Gospel of the Nazarenes]]. The earliest surviving manuscripts and fragments of these texts are dated later than the earliest surviving manuscripts and fragments of the canonical Gospels, but they are probably copies of earlier manuscripts whose precise dates are unknown.
'''The [[canonical gospels]]'''--[[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], and [[Gospel of John|John]]--are religious biographies that stress Jesus' fulfillment of [[Old Testament]] [[prophecy]], his teachings on the Kingdom of God or Kingdom of Heaven, and the miracles which attended his life and death. The oldest of these, Mark, is usually dated to within a few years of AD 70. John is generally regarded as the latest, though the dates proposed for it vary widely (from the AD 70's to the early 2nd century). The four are linked not only by having been selected by the early church for preservation and dissemination, but also through their textual history. In particular, the synoptics (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) share much material (often verbatim), albeit rearranged.


Many scholars point to a hypothetical, reconstructed text called "[[Q document |Q]]" (from the German ''Quelle'', meaning "source") as a possible older substratum which might bridge the gap between the time of Jesus and the composition of the gospels. This influential documentary hypothesis is based on the [[synoptic problem]], i.e. the fact that the three [[synoptic gospels]] (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) share much material in common. In particular, Matthew and Luke each include almost the whole of Mark's material (and are each about twice as long as Mark), suggesting that Mark came first, and was then incorporated into Matthew and Luke. However, Matthew and Luke also share other material not found in Mark, suggesting to some the [[two-source hypothesis]], namely that they were also copying from another, no longer extant text. Thus "Q" is defined as anything which is in Matthew and Luke, but not in Mark. As it happens, this material consists largely of sayings of Jesus--exactly the sort of document one would expect to have been composed at an early date in the history of Christianity. (The [[Gospel of Thomas]] follows this pattern, being a collection of [[logoi]].) The assumption is that Jesus lore would have circulated as oral tradition and collections of written logoi before its incorporation into the gospels.
'''[[The Q Document]]''' is a hypothetical document reconstructed from the synoptic gospels, with some scholars adding corollary readings from non-canonical "sayings Gospels" such as the [[Gospel of Thomas]]. It is based on the observation that Matthew and Luke each incorporate almost the whole of Mark, but add other material. As much of this added material is identical--consisting largely of sayings attributed to Jesus--many scholars speculate that Matthew and Luke copied not only Mark but another source, no longer extant, called Q (an abbreviation for the German ''Quelle'', meaning "wellspring" or "source"). If Q existed in a collected form, it could have been a written document or an oral tradition. Q has become an important topic in Jesus research, because the material thus identified might constitute an older and perhaps more reliable stratum.


Some scholars (e.g. Burton Mack, Stephen Patterson), following John Kloppenborg discern various strata within Q--distinguished as Q1, Q2, etc.--which they theorize to have been written at different times. If true, this would place the older strata closer to the time of Jesus. However, many scholars either reject the two-source hypothesis (for example, the [[Augustinian hypothesis]] holds that Luke copied Matthew and Mark); consider Q to be later (John Spong explains its contents as [[midrash]]); or view Q as a non-Christian import (i.e. pre-existing logoi which were only later attributed to Jesus--this being the view of Earl Doherty).
'''Ancient non-Christian sources''' include scattered references to Jesus in the writings of [[Flavius Josephus]], Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, and [[Suetonius]]. Josephus was a Jewish historian who, in about AD 93, briefly described the careers of John the Baptist and Jesus. One passage, the so-called ''Testimonium Flavianum,'' is suspected to have suffered corruption by Christian editors. Around AD 100, Pliny the Younger wrote to the emperor Trajan for advice on what policy to adopt toward Christians in his jurisdiction, noting several basic details about the sect. The Roman historians Tacitus and Suetonius, writing in the early 2nd century, also mention Jesus briefly (if the latter's "Chrestus" in fact refers to the same man).


Other theoretical documents include the [[Signs Gospel]], which [[Rudolf Bultmann]] believed to have been a source for the [[Gospel of John]]; and the "[[Cross Gospel]]" which [[John Dominic Crossan]] identifies as the source of the noncanonical [[Gospel of Peter]].
'''Noncanonical Christian writings''' date from the 2nd century on, although elements of them may be based on earlier sources which are now unknown. This includes some literature not recognized by the emerging Christian orthodoxy, such as the Gospel of Thomas (see above), as well as the writings of the church fathers (which were recognized, but not as canon).  


===Degrees of Skepticism===
'''The Talmuds,''' ancient compilations of Jewish law and tradition, include some 3rd-century recollections of 1st-century events. These may include scattered (and uncomplimentary) references to Jesus.
Problems with sources have led a few scholars (G.A. Wells, Earl Doherty, Timothy Freke, Peter Gandy, andJohn Allegro) to deny that Jesus ever existed. In this view, the story of Jesus is a myth, like various other Near Eastern deities or demigods (e.g. [[Mithras]], [[Apollo]], [[Attis]], [[Horus]], [[Osiris-Dionysus]]) who experienced virgin birth and / or resurrection from the dead. This view, however, has not won wide support.


A major counter-argument is the ''criterion of embarrassment'' (also known as the ''criterion of dissimilarity''). This holds that a gospel detail which early Christians would have found embarrassing is more likely to be true. An example would be Jesus's execution as a criminal, a rather disturbing element not included in any known Jewish traditions of the [[Jewish Messiah | messiah]]. Were Jesus entirely fictional, his story would surely have ended differently.
==Jesus in the canonical Gospels==
{{Main|Canonical Gospels}}
Christians normally encounter the story of Jesus as a conflation of the canonical gospels, which many churches read from the pulpit according to a regular cycle. (Indeed, the synoptics may have been ''composed'' around such a calendar.) Many of the events listed here are associated with Christian holidays, such as Christmas (for Jesus' birth) or Easter (for his resurrection).


Jesus's baptism by John is another example. This would have been embarrassing to early Christians because of (a) the suggestion that Jesus had sins to be forgiven, and (b) the inferior role of Jesus viz. John. Matthew (3:13-15) even has John object to the arrangement, only to hear Jesus insist. All four gospels stress John's expectation of another greater than himself, as if this required emphasis. In this connection, the [[Mandaean]]s of southern Iraq are a [[gnostic]] sect which venerates John but not Jesus, whom they regard as a schismatic who abandoned the Baptist movement.
'''Jesus' geneaology.''' The first sentence of the New Testament (Matthew 1:1) calls Jesus "the son of David, the son of Abraham," thereby linking him to two key figures of the Old Testament. Abraham is the ancestor of the Jewish people. King David's reign marks a high point in the history of Israel, whose hoped-for revival was expressed through messianic expectations. Matthew (1:1-17) and Luke (3:23-38) give somewhat different lists of ancestors.
Other details that arguably fit the criteria include Jesus's statement (Mark 10: 18, cf. Luke 18:19) "Why do you call me good? No one is good but God alone."


Another principle is the ''criterion of multiple attestation'', which says that a claim is more likely to be true if it appears in several independent sources. The gospels may not qualify, as their textual history is bound together, and they were apparently selected for preservation by the same sect. Hence the importance of confirmation from other ancient sources; or failing that, of recovering ur-texts and otherwise distinguishing between strata of texts otherwise thought to be unitary.
'''The [[Nativity]].''' Both Matthew and Luke place Jesus' birth in Bethlehem (but have him grow up in Nazareth), and affirm the virginal conception. Matthew (chapters 1 and 2) adds the Star of Bethlehem, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight into Egypt, and the Massacre of the Innocents. Luke (chapters 1 and 2) gives us the Annunciation, the Census of Quirinius, and the appearance of angels to shepherds in the field.


===Jesus in Context===
'''The [[Epiphany]].''' All four gospels introduce the adult Jesus by way of John the Baptist, who baptizes him.  
In AD 70, the [[Herod's Temple | Temple of Jerusalem]] was destroyed. Before then, Judaism was a temple-centered religion--not so different, perhaps, from other Near Eastern temple cults. While many religious movements disagreed about the true teachings of [[Judaism]], all did so in the context of this temple-centered religion (even those such as the [[Essene]]s who regarded its authorities as illegitimate).  


After AD 70, this temple cult no longer existed, except by way of an aspiration on the part of some to rebuild it. As Donald Harmon Akenson describes it, instead of a "religion of the temple", one sect (which has since come to represent Judaism as a whole) reoriented itself to become a "People of the Book," i.e., the [[Torah]]. Another sect recognized a person, Jesus Christ, as the new center of their religion, in the process abandoning a purely ethnic Jewish identity. The notorious "[[blood curse]]s" from the gospels, and the [[Eighteen Benedictions]] (really curses) from the synagogue service, probably reflect mutual ill-will between the two emerging religions as they disagreed over which was the true heir to biblical tradition.
:"And when Jesus had been baptized he at once came up from the water, and suddenly the heavens opened and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming down on him. And suddenly there was a voice from heaven, 'This is my Son, the Beloved; my favor rests on him." (Matthew 3: 16-17; cf. Mark 1: 10 ff, Luke 3: 21 ff, John 1:32).


While the life of Jesus belongs to the period before AD 70, almost all the sources about him--with the exceptions of Saint Paul, the Gospel of Mark, and possibly [[Q (documentary hypopthesis | Q]]--were composed after this date, and reflect different contexts and understandings. Aspects of Second Temple Judaism with which Jesus is commonly associated include:
'''The Temptation.''' After Jesus' baptism, he fasts in the wilderness, where he is tempted (unsuccessfully) by the devil. (Matthew 4, Mark 1:12-13, Luke 4).


:'''[[Apocalypse]]''': A major category of Jewish thought and literature during the Second Temple period consisted of revelations delivered by angels or other spiritual beings, often through visions, and emphasized such themes as the resurrection of the dead; the Last Judgment, the geography of heaven and hell, and prophecy (either messianic / millennial, or catastrophist, and often symbolic). Pre-Christian examples would include [[Ethiopic Enoch]], [[4 Ezra]], and the [[Book of Jubilees]]. The gospels sometimes resemble this genre (e.g. the [[Little Apocalypse]], the phrase "[[Son of Man]]").<ref name=JesusApoc1>The Gospel accounts show both John the Baptist and Jesus teaching repentance and the coming Kingdom of God. Some scholars have argued that Jesus was a failed apocalyptic prophet; see Schwietzer, Albert ''The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of its Progress from Reimarus to Wrede,'' pgs. 370–371, 402. Scribner (1968), ISBN 0-02-089240-3; [[Bart Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart]] ''Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium,'' Oxford University Press USA, 1999. ISBN 0-19-512474-X. Crossan, however, makes a distinction between John's apocalyptic ministry and Jesus' ethical ministry. See [[John Dominic Crossan|Crossan, John Dominic]], ''The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus,'' pgs. 305-344. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-061659-8.</ref> which became [[Early Christianity]] after the [[Great Commission]] spread his teachings to the [[Gentiles]].<ref name=JesusApoc2>This includes the belief that Jesus was the Messiah. Brown, Michael L. ''Answering Jewish Objections to Jesus: Messianic Prophecy Objections'' Baker Books, 2003. ISBN 0-8010-6423-6. Brown shows how the Christian concept of Messiah relates to ideas current in late Second Temple period Judaism. See also Klausner, Joseph, ''The Messianic Idea in Israel: From its Beginning to the Completion of the Mishnah,'' Macmillan 1955; Patai, Raphael, ''Messiah Texts,'' Wayne State University Press, 1989. ISBN 0-8143-1850-9; Crossan, John Dominic, ''The Birth of Christianity: Discovering What Happened in the Years Immediately After the Execution of Jesus,'' pg. 461. Harper Collins, 1998. ISBN 0-06-061659-8. Patai and Klausner state that one interpretation of the prophecies reveal either two Messiahs, Messiah ben Yosef (the dying Messiah) and Messiah ben David (the Davidic King), or one Messiah who comes twice. Crossan cites the Essene teachings about the twin Messiahs. Compare to the Christian doctrine of the [[Second Coming]].</ref>  Jesus is also connected to the apocalyptic tradition through John the Baptist, and his Pauline successors were apocalyptic. Bart Ehrman, noting that predictions of the end of the world have been made throughout Christian history, raises the question of whether Jesus himself preached this. Paula Fredriksen observes that such notions were already "in the air," but speculates that Jesus's popularity, arrest and execution (in contrast to the leniency shown his followers) might be explained if he predicted that the end would come, not ''soon'', but ''now''. The theology of Matthew, Luke, and John may consist of a "realized eschatology" which would be a natural response to failed prophesy. A particularly controversial point is that of whether Jesus claimed to be the messiah. Mark suggests that this was kept secret (the "Messianic Secret"); some propose that the identification of Jesus with the messiah came after his death.
'''Calling of Disciples''' Jesus summons his first disciples (Matthew 4:18-22, Mark 1:16-20, Luke 5:1-11) and later--with a full complement of twelve--sends them out to preach (Matthew 10; Mark 6:7-13; Luke 6:12-16, also 9:1-6). Many scholars believe the twelve disciples thus appointed to represent the Twelve Tribes of Israel. (Jesus had many more followers than twelve.) The lists of names subtly differ from gospel to gospel.


:'''[[Pharisee | Pharisaic Judaism]]''': The Pharisaic movement--the ancestors of rabbinic Judaism as it exists today--was a major faction within Second Temple Judaism. Interestingly, the only two ancient authors who claimed to be Pharisees (or former Pharisees) themselves were Josephus and Paul, both rather unique figures. Although the gospels portray Jesus as opposed to this movement (he calls them "hypocrites", "fools", "vipers", and "sons of your father the devil"), some scholars assert that Jesus was himself a Pharisee.<ref name=JesusPharisee>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the Talmud and other Jewish literature. Sanders, E. P. ''Jesus and Judaism,'' Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8006-2061-5; [[Hyam Maccoby|Maccoby, Hyam]] ''Jesus the Pharisee,'' Scm Press, 2003. ISBN 0-334-02914-7; Falk, Harvey ''Jesus the Pharisee: A New Look at the Jewishness of Jesus,'' Wipf & Stock Publishers (2003). ISBN 1-59244-313-3. See also ''Jesus the Pharisee'', forthcoming from Hyam Maccoby.</ref> Cross-culturally, the greatest vitriol often occurs between the groups or viewpoints which are most closely related. On the other hand, Jesus's anti-Pharisaic rants may be entirely fictitious. The crux of his criticism seems to be that the Pharisees demanded stricter observance of [[halakhah]] than ordinary people, or the Pharisees themselves, could follow. This is ironic in that Jesus's interpretations of Jewish law range from the strict (e.g., his prohibition of divorce, except on grounds of adultery) to the impractical (e.g., his equation of momentary lust with adultery). Christians who perhaps take Jesus too much at his word viz. the Pharisees might reflect that Jesus's "[[Greatest Commandment]]" quotes Leviticus and Deuteronomy by way of [[Hillel the Great]] (Matthew 22:34 ff; Luke 10:25 ff). [[Jacob Neusner]] contends that Jesus' teachings were closer to the House of [[Shammai]] than the House of [[Hillel]]. <ref> Jacob Neusner, ''A Rabbi Talks With Jesus,'' McGill-Queen's University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-7735-2046-5. </ref>
'''Sermons.''' Matthew chapters 5 - 7 gives us the [[Sermon on the Mount]], in which Jesus calls on his followers to turn the other cheek (5:39), "love your enemies" (5:44), and practice the [[Golden Rule]] (7:12). Other highlights include the Beatitudes (5:3-11) and the Lord's Prayer (6:9-13). Similar material is found in Luke, but scattered throughout the text rather than concentrated, as in Matthew.  


:'''Social protest''': Crucifixion was the prescribed form of execution for [[sedition]] against the Roman authorities. The gospels--written at a time when Christians sought good relations with Rome--deny Jesus's guilt (though he is depicted as physically attacking money-changers). Apparently his claim was willfully misunderstood--he was "King of the Jews" only in a spiritual sense. A number of Jesus's near-contemporaries (e.g. [[Judas of Galilee]]) sought to oust Rome and reestablish Israel as an independent monarchy. The gospels and other sources mention a class of revolutionaries called [[Zealots]] (Jesus's disciples included one called "Simon the Zealot"--but also a Roman collaborator in the person of Matthew the tax-collector); these may fit better the social category of banditry than that of nationalist resistance. Many scholars see political meaning in Jesus's naming of twelve disciples (corresponding to the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]]). A number of sayings attributed to Jesus (e.g. "blessed are the poor"; "the first shall be last") appear vaguely subversive of the established order. His concept of "The Kingdom of God" (or Heaven) is thought by some to have a political dimension involving debt forgiveness and the abandonment of burdensome purity requirements. In this sense, the "revolutionary" nature of Jesus's message would be his championing of the interests of the Palestinian peasant class.
'''Parables.''' A "parable" is a short narrative illustrating a spiritual point--often puzzling, or involving a surprising twist--and the classic examples are those of Jesus. The synoptics agree that Jesus told "parables" (the concept is introduced somewhat in Matthew 13, Mark 4, and Luke 8) and give many examples. Here is just one:


:'''Palestinian folk religion''': Reading the gospels, it is easy to imagine Jesus as delivering the equivalent of sermons--but less easy to imagine him as a kind of medium who allows himself to be possessed by an angel, or the Spirit of God (this is [[Stevan Davis]]'s view), which then accomplishes teachings, healings and exorcisms through him. Second Temple Palestine saw several folk religious figures whose roles are as much magical as religious. Among them were [[Honi the Circle Drawer]] and [[Hanina ben Dosa]], two saintly characters from the [[Mishnah]] whose prayers were capable of persuading God to allow healings, rainfall, or whatever else was requested. [[Marcus Borg]] proposes to call Jesus a "spirit person," among other roles, in order to underscore the degree to which he must have experienced the spirit as a living reality rather than mere theory.  
:"The kingdom of Heaven is like the yeast a woman took and mixed in with three measures of flour till it was leavened all through." (Matthew 13:33).


:'''The [[Essene]] sect''': Init <ref name=JesusEssene>Based on a comparison of the Gospels with the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]], especially the [[Teacher of Righteousness]] and Pierced Messiah. [[Robert Eisenman|Eisenman, Robert]] ''James the Brother of Jesus: The Key to Unlocking the Secrets of Early Christianity and the Dead Sea Scrolls,'' Penguin (Non-Classics), 1998. ISBN 0-14-025773-X; [[Hartmut Stegemann|Stegemann, Hartmut]] ''The Library of Qumran: On the Essenes, Qumran, John the Baptist, and Jesus.'' Grand Rapids MI, 1998. See also Broshi, Magen, "What Jesus Learned from the Essenes," ''[[Biblical Archaeology Review]],'' 30:1, pg. 32-37, 64. Magen notes similarities between Jesus' teachings on the virtue of poverty and divorce, and Essene teachings as related in Josephus' ''[[The Jewish Wars]]'' and in the [[Damascus Document]] of the Dead Sea Scrolls, repspectively.</ref>
'''Miracle stories.''' All four gospels affirm that Jesus performed miracles. A traditional typology would distinguish between  


:'''[[Cynic]] philosophy''': Newcomers to Jesus Studies are likely to greet with some bewilderment, the suggestion that Jesus belonged to a Hellenistic gentile philosophical movement--especially one famed primarily for such eccentric figures as [[Diogenes of Sinope]]. Yet several members of the [[Jesus Seminar]], including [[Robert Funk]] and [[Burton Mack]], have argued this. They point out that the Palestinian Jewish culture of Jesus's day was heavily Hellenized; and that the oft-caricatured Cynics were in fact a serious social movement which produced a wisdom literature analogous, they say, to Q1. Nevertheless, the identification of Jesus with Cynicism remains very much a minority viewpoint.
:*healings (e.g. of the "man born blind" in John 9);
:*exorcisms (e.g., of the Gerasene demoniac in Matthew 8:28-34, Mark 5:1-20, and Luke 8:26-39);
:*"nature miracles" (e.g. walking on water in Matthew 14:22-33, Mark 6: 45-52, and John 6:16-21); and
:*resurrections (e.g. of Lazarus in John 11).


===The Canonical Gospels===
'''The [[Transfiguration]].''' The synoptics (Matthew 17:1-6, Mark 9:1-8, Luke 9:28-36) say that, when Jesus took his disciples Peter, John, and James the son of Zebadee to the top of a mountain, Jesus began to shine with light. His disciples also saw him converse with [[Moses]] and [[Elijah]], and heard a voice from the clouds.
Mark


'''Apocalypse.''' The synoptics (Matthew 24, 25; Mark 13, Luke 12) describe Jesus as expecting a time of "sorrows" which will culminate in the Last Judgement. Many false Christs will appear, and the "abomination of desolation" will be set up in Jerusalem. Many scholars connect these passages with the siege of Jerusalem and the destruction of its temple AD 70. Jesus refers to "the Son of Man" (possibly meaning himself); this is an allusion to the seventh chapter of Daniel, the classic text of Jewish apocalypticism.


'''Jesus' revelation as the Messiah.''' The synoptics (Matthew 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-21) have Jesus ask his disciples about their understanding of his role. When Peter calls him the Messiah, Jesus orders the disciples not to tell anyone. Matthew has John the Baptist send messengers to ask Jesus whether he is the Messiah--he tells them to inform John that "the blind see again, and the lame walk" (Matthew 11:5). John has Jesus reveal himself as the Messiah in many situations, notably to a Samaritan woman whom he meets at a well (John 4).


Other important apocryphal works that stronly influenced traditional Christian beliefs include the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], [[Protevangelium of James]], [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]], and [[Acts of Peter]].Several Christian traditions (such as [[Saint Veronica|Veronica's veil]] and the [[Assumption of Mary]]) are found not in the canonical gospels but in these and other apocryphal works.
'''Disputes with Pharisees and Sadducees.''' The synoptics (Matthew 16:1-12, 21:23 ff, 22, 23; Mark 8:11-21, 11:27-end, 12; Luke 11: 37-53) portray Jesus as angrily debating representatives of two of the major religious factions, the Pharisees and Sadducees (or "scribes"). A major theme is the degree of severity required by Jewish law--Jesus accuses his opponents of over-exactitude and hypocrisy. Their conflict will play a great role in Jesus' later execution. John (8:1-11) gives the story of the "woman caught in adultery," in which the Pharisees and Sadduccees ask Jesus for his legal opinion (the biblically-mandated sentence being death by stoning). His celebrated words: "Let he who is without sin cast the first stone."


===Biographical details===
'''Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem.''' All four gospels (Matthew 21, Mark 11, Luke 19:28 ff, John 12:12 ff) agree that Jesus was welcomed into Jerusalem by crowds shouting messianic slogans--an event commemorated as Palm Sunday.
The gospels do not say when Jesus was born, when he died, or his age at death. (Church tradition reports that he began his ministry at age 30, on the grounds that this was the ideal human age, and was killed three years later.) Those details which can be dated, often appear to conflict with one another. The gospels also sometimes disagree about the sequence of events. One theory is that the synoptic gospels were constructed around several ancient church calendars, with an eye to providing teaching material to complement the Torah readings for each week.


====Name====
'''The Last Supper / Betrayal by Judas.''' All four gospels (Matthew 26, Mark 14, Luke 22, John 13 and 18) have Judas leave the company in order to betray Jesus to the temple authorities. The synoptics describe the Last Supper (a Passover seder), in which Jesus shares bread and wine with his disciples, saying the words that are repeated with every celebration of the eucharist: "This is my body which is given for you; do this in remembrance of me. This cup is the new covenant in my blood poured out for you." (Luke 22:19-20, cf. I Corinthians 11:23 ff).
Jesus was named after the Old Testament hero [[Joshua]], whose Hebrew name ''Yehoshua'' (יהושוע) becomes ''Yeshua'' (ישוע) in [[Aramaic]] (Jesus's native language). [[Koine Greek|Greek]] being the lingua franca of the Roman Empire as well as early Christianity, ''Yeshua'' came to be rendered as ''Iesous'' (''Ιησους''). It entered English by way of Latin (''Iēsus''). <ref>John P. Meier, ''A Marginal Jew''. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205-7;</ref>


''[[Christ]]'' is a title and not a part of his name. ''Christos'' is the Greek translation for the Hebrew ''[[Moshiach]]'' ("Messiah"), and literally means "anointed one." The original reference was to the family of ceremonies for crowning a king, or ordaining a prophet, which involved pouring oil upon the head. Whether these and other titles were used during his lifetime, or by him, and what they might have meant, are all matters of controversy.
'''The Farewell Discourses.''' Instead of the Last Supper, John (chapters 13-17) describes a final intimate talk which is considered a highlight of Christian mystical expression. After washing the disciples' feet as an example of service and humility, Jesus gives them "a new commandment"--to "love one another, as I have loved you." (15:12, cf. 13:34). Later sections describe Jesus' relationship with "the Father", and promise the coming of the Paraclete (Holy Spirit).


====Birth====
'''Arrest''' According to the synoptics, Jesus spends the night before his death on the Mount of Olives (outside Jerusalem), in prayer (Matthew 26:36 ff, Mark 14:32 ff, Luke 22:39 ff). All four gospels describe Judas as leading temple police to Jesus, who he identifies by kissing him (Matthew 26:47 ff, Mark 14:43 ff, Luke 22:47 ff, John 18).
The Gospels of Matthew]] and of Luke contain nativity stories, which are often conflated for the purpose of popular commemoration. (The magi are from Matthew 2; the angels and shepherds are from Luke 2; and the animals surrounding the manger do not appear at all.) Neither the [[Census of Querinius]] nor Herod's "[[massacre of the innocents]]" appear to have actually happened. As for Jesus's birthplace, the gospels often refer to him as a Galilean, which fits the criterion of embarrassment. Nazareth is in fact in Galilee, or near enough, but it might not have existed during the first century. Some have argued that the title ''Iesos Nazarenos'' should be translated "Jesus the [[Nazarene]]" rather than "Jesus of Nazareth." Skeptics dismiss Luke's story about Jesus being born in [[Bethlehem]] as a transparent attempt to link him to King David, who was born there.  


*Luke's shepherds tend their flocks in the fields, suggesting a spring or summer date.
'''Trial''' The gospels describe three distinct trials, all during the same night. The first, before a council of Jewish religious authorities (the Sanhedrin), examines whether Jesus has claimed to be the Messiah and/or the "Son of God." The second, before Pilate, focuses on the issue of whether he claimed to be the "King of the Jews." To all such questions Jesus responds in the affirmative, though John (18:36) has him explain to Pilate that "my kingdom is not of this world." Luke adds a third trial before Herod Antipas, to whom Pilate has sent Jesus to be tried for jurisdictional reasons. (Herod sends him back.) In the end, Pilate--his hand apparently forced by the Jewish community--reluctantly finds Jesus guilty and sentences him to death.


*
'''The Passion.''' All four gospels agree that Jesus was executed by crucifixion, and recount various "Stations of the Cross" that represent successive stages of his agony. The words spoken by Jesus from the cross differ from gospel to gospel. The synoptics agree that Jesus' death was on a Friday which was also the Passover; John says that the day was actually the Day of Preparation (the day before).


In Western Christianity, it has been traditionally celebrated as [[Christmas]] on 25 December, a date that can be traced as early as 330 among Roman Christians. Before then, and still today in [[Eastern Christianity]], Jesus' birth was generally celebrated on January 6 as part of the feast of [[Theophany, also known as [[Epiphany (feast)|Epiphany]], which commemorated not only Jesus' birth but also his baptism by John the Baptist in the Jordan River. Scholars speculate that the date of the celebration was moved in an attempt to replace the Roman festival of [[Saturnalia]] (specifically, the birthday of the God [[Sol Invictus]]).
'''Resurrection''' In all four gospels (Matthew 28, Mark 16 Luke 4, John 20), Mary Magdalene and other female followers of Jesus visit his tomb, and discover that he is in fact alive. (A shorter ending of Mark ends with the discovery of the empty tomb.) Jesus appears to the other disciples later and gives them the "Great Commission" (to take his message to the world). The Gospel of John adds touching farewells to disciples Thomas and Peter.


In the 248th year during the [[Diocletian]] Era (based on Diocletian's ascension to the Roman throne), [[Dionysius Exiguus]] attempted to pinpoint the number of years since Jesus' birth, arriving at a figure of 753 years after the founding of Rome. Dionysius then set Jesus' birth as being December 25 1 BC|1 ACN (for "Ante Christum Natum", or "before the birth of Christ"), and assigned AD 1 to the following year — thereby establishing the system of numbering years from the birth of Jesus: ''[[Anno Domini]]'' (which translates as "in the year of our Lord"). This system made the then current year 532, and almost two centuries later it won acceptance and became the established calendar in Western civilization due to its further championing by the [[Bede|Venerable Bede]].
'''Ascension.''' Luke (24:50, cf. Mark 16:19) reports that the disciples watched Jesus ascend into heaven. The Book of Acts (1:19-11) adds that Jesus, in the words of an angel, "will come back in the same way as you have seen him go to heaven." This alludes to the Christian belief in the Second Coming of Christ.


====Languages====
==The historical Jesus==
That Jesus's native language was Aramaic is shown not only by external history, but also by Amamaic quotes embedded within the otherwise Greek texts of the gospels. Scholars are unsure as to how much Greek or Hebrew (if any) Jesus might have known. Latin is considered a more distant possibility.
{{Main|Historical Jesus}}
Since the [[Enlightenment]], scholars have tried to distinguish Jesus as a historical figure from the figure worshiped by Christianity, although [[Albert Schweitzer]] commented that scholars who set out on a "Quest for the Historical Jesus" tend to discover in him a reflection of their own views. Some [[naturalism|naturalist]] scholars focused doubt on the biblical accounts of miracles. Others saw Jesus as a moral teacher whose views are best represented by the Sermon on the Mount. In recent decades, the name "Jesus Studies" has come to describe historical (as opposed to theological) approaches to the study of Jesus. In 1985, the [[Westar Institute]] started a project named the Jesus Seminar which inquired into the "voice of Jesus" - two hundred scholars discussed and voted on which stories and statements about Jesus they thought were historically valid. Many of the scholars involved with the Seminar have gone on to develop theories about Jesus, some of which are described below.


====Family====
A central problem is that the most important sources about Jesus--the canonical gospels--are not accepted as reliable by all scholars due to a number of factors: (1) disagreement in regards to date of authorship, (2) the writers' neutrality is disputed because they were followers of Jesus, and (3) certain details in the gospels are believed to conflict with one another, with external history, or with secular understandings and presuppositions regarding the physical world. As a result, historians must decide whether to  
Matthew 1:1 ff and Luke 3: 23 ff give accounts of Jesus's genealogy which appear contradictory, though several theories attempting to harmonize them have been proposed. Matthew pointedly traces Jesus's ancestry to [[Abraham]] and [[King David]]; Luke, to God by way of [[Adam]]. The names on the two lists diverge after the time of David. Skeptics note that cross-culturally, such geneaologies are often fictitious; and that many of the characters listed here appear to be mythical. Oddly, the same gospels affirm that Jesus's true father was God rather than Joseph, whose ancestry they take such pains to recount. Perhaps a legal rather than genetic relationship (as with adoption) is being described here.


The gospels agree on the names of Jesus's parents, Mary and Joseph. Joseph appears only in descriptions of Jesus' childhood, whereas Mary is present at the crucifixion, and this has led some Christians to speculate that Joseph died during the intervening years.
:(a) select which information they regard as most probable;
:(b) attempt to harmonize seeming discrepancies; or
In the Gospel of John, Jesus entrusts the care of his mother to the "beloved disciple" (whom tradition often conflates with John). If historical, this suggests that he had no surviving male relatives. However, Matthew 13:55-56 and Mark 6:3 (cf. [[Galatians]] 1: 19) name several "brothers" (''adelphoi'') and allude to sisters as well. Orthodox and Catholic Christians insist that some other familial or affectional relationship is meant, as according to their belief, Mary remained a lifelong virgin, with Jesus as her only child.
:(c) doubt everything.


Historically, Jesus's "brother," Jakob ha-Zaddik (anglicized as "James the Righteous") led the Jerusalem church from
Following this last principle, a few scholars ([[G. A. Wells]], [[Earl Doherty]], [[John Allegro]] and [[Robert M. Price]]) go so far as to doubt the existence of Jesus as a historical figure, often citing the idea of the ''Mythic Hero'' and pointing to similarities with the myths of earlier religious saviors<ref>As an example of this genre, [[Robert M. Price]]'s essay [http://www.infidels.org/library/modern/robert_price/fiction.html Christ a Fiction] (1997) ''Internet Infidels'' library.</ref>. This view has not received widespread support for several reasons, including attestation to Jesus' existence in disparate sources, and the inclusion in the gospel accounts of events potentially embarrassing to early Christians that were unlikely to have been invented. Examples of such embarrassing events include Jesus' execution as a criminal (a detail not found in traditional Jewish messianic lore), and his baptism by John the Baptist (suggesting that Jesus had sins to be forgiven, and an inferior role to John).


The gospels do not say whether Jesus was married. While Jewish tradition discourages celibacy, exceptions might exist for special situations such as war, and some Jewish groups (such as the Essenes) did practice it on this basis. A number of modern writers, some of them scholarly, speculate that [[Mary Magdalene]] was his wife. The [[Secret Gospel of Mark]]--rejected by many as a 20th century fraud--hints that Jesus practiced ritual homosexuality. [[Mormon]] tradition holds that Jesus was (and remains) plurally married, to Mary and Martha.
Recent scholarly interpretations of Jesus that do not necessarily agree with historical Christian beliefs variously portray him as:


====Appearance====
* a Cynic sage ([[Robert Funk]], [[Marcus Borg]], [[John Dominic Crossan]])
While the earliest artistic depictions of Jesus come far to late to be of any value in reconstructing his actual appearance, scholars assume that he resembled the native populations of the eastern Mediterranean--which would still offer a range of skin-tones and facial physiognamies. He is unlikely to have appeared Caucasoid; a Negroid appearance is only slightly more probable. Perhaps counterintuitively, we know short hair to have been the custom for men of the time based on archeological evidence as well as Paul (who would otherwise not likely have condemned long haired on men). On the other hand, it is conceivable that Jesus might have followed [[Nazarene]] vows against hair-cutting. Most men would have been clean-shaven, with a minority sporting short beards.
* a Pharisee ([[Jacob Neusner]], [[Hyam Macoby]])
* a social reformer ([[Marcus Borg]], [[John Dominic Crossan]], [[N.T. Wright]])
* a zealot or revolutionary ([[Hermann Samuel Reimarus]])
* an apocalytic prophet ([[Albert Schweitzer]], [[Bart Ehrman]], [[Paula Fredriksen]], [[John Meier]], [[E.P. Sanders]])
* a folk magician ([[Morton Smith]], [[John Dominic Crossan]])
* a messianic claimant ([[Raymond Brown]], [[Luke Timothy Johnson]], [[N.T. Wright]])
* a "Child of Sophia" ([[Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza]], [[Marcus Borg]], [[John Shelby Spong]])


====Teachings====
Many other theories have been proposed, but have received less scholarly support.
One key issue which defies consensus is that of Jesus's teachings. Scholars researching the historical Jesus have arrived at a variety of conclusions:


====Death====
==Jesus in Christianity==
The exact date of Jesus' death is unclear. Many scholars hold that the Gospel of John depicts the crucifixion just before the [[Passover]] festival on Friday 14 [[Nisan]], called the [[Quartodecimanism|Quartodeciman]], whereas the [[synoptic gospels]] (except for {{niv|Mark|14:2|Mark 14:2}}) describe the [[Last Supper]], immediately before Jesus' arrest, as the Passover meal on Friday 15 Nisan; however, a number of scholars hold that the synoptic account is harmonious with the account in John.<ref name="alternate-supper">See Leon Morris, ''The Gospel According to John, Revised'' pp 284-295, for a discussion of several alternate theories with references.</ref> Further, the Jews followed a [[lunisolar calendar]] with phases of the moon as dates, complicating calculations of any exact date in a solar calendar. According to John P. Meier's ''A Marginal Jew'', allowing for the time of the [[procurator|procuratorship]] of [[Pontius Pilate]] and the dates of the Passover in those years, his death can be placed most probably on April 7, 30 AD/CE or April 3, 33 AD/CE.<ref>Meier, p.1:402</ref>
{{Main|Jesus in Christianity}}
Christianity encompasses groups and individuals whose Christologies (views on Jesus) are extremely diverse. Nevertheless, certain "mainstream" beliefs can be identified, which would win broad support among the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches (i.e. the overwhelming majority of Christians). These beliefs may be traced partly to the New Testament, and partly to church tradition. Especially influential were the ecumenical councils which established creeds such as the Nicene (or Niceno-Constantinopolitan) Creed.  


Christians generally affirm that Jesus was the Messiah whose coming was predicted by the prophets of the Old Testament; and would approve of Peter's words (in Matthew 16:16), "You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God." Perhaps confusingly, Christian tradition hails Jesus not only as the Son of God, but also in some sense as God himself, incarnated as a man. The theology that arose to describe this uses the language of the Incarnation (Jesus being fully human, yet fully divine), and of the Trinity (Jesus being its Second Person, the Son or Logos, who is "eternally begotten of the Father").


== Jesus in Christianity ==
The Jesus of Christianity is at once historical and trans-historical. The Nicene Creed expresses the belief that he existed before the creation of the world, and will reign eternally after its end (the subject of eschatology). Moreover, many affirm his dwelling within the hearts of all Christian believers, perhaps all souls, who receive spiritual life from him as grapes do from the vine (John 15:1 ff). The "body of Christ" is identified with the community of believers--the church--as well as with the communion bread. For some churches such as Orthodox and Catholics, Christ is actually present in the Eucharist (Transubstantiation), whereby he unites with his worshipers.
The nature of Jesus is the central issue of [[Christology]]. Christian beliefs about Jesus have always been diverse, although many theologians have condemned as [[heresy]] beliefs opposed to theirs.  


The [[Ebionites]], an early Jewish Christian community, believed that Jesus was the last of the [[Prophet#Prophets in the Tanakh (Hebrew Bible)|prophets]] and the Messiah. They believed that Jesus was the natural-born son of Mary and Joseph, and thus they rejected the Virgin Birth. The Ebionites were [[Adoptionism|adoptionists]], believing that Jesus was not divine, but became the son of God at his baptism. They rejected the [[Epistles of Paul]], believing that Jesus kept the [[Mosaic Law]] perfectly and wanted his followers to do the same. However, they felt that Jesus' crucifixion was the ultimate sacrifice, and thus animal sacrifices were no longer necessary. Therefore, some Ebionites were vegetarian and considered both Jesus and John the Baptist to have been vegetarians.<ref>Bart D. Ehrman, ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 102.</ref> Shemayah Phillips founded a small community of modern Ebionites in 1985. These Ebionites identify as Jews rather than as Christians, and do not accept Jesus as the Jewish Messiah.
Of the various miracles that the gospels attribute to Jesus, or describe as occurring in his proximity, most amount to signs of his divinity. However, two carry special doctrinal significance: Mary's virginal conception of Jesus (not to be confused with the immaculate conception, or the virgin birth), and Jesus' resurrection from the dead. The first is associated with the Incarnation; the second, with Christ's role as Savior.


The name "[[Gnosticism]]" has been applied to a vast collection of often unrelated figures and movements. While some Gnostics were [[docetism|docetics]], most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of Christ during his baptism.<ref>Bart D. Ehrman, ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 124-125</ref> Many Gnostics believed that Christ was an [[Aeons#In Gnosticism|Aeon]] sent by [[Monad (Gnosticism)|a higher deity]] than the evil [[Demiurge#Gnosticism|demiurge]] who created the material world. Some Gnostics believed that Christ had a [[Syzygy#Gnosticism|syzygy]] named [[Sophia (gnosticism)|Sophia]]. The Gnostics tended to [[Gnosticism and the New Testament|interpret the New Testament]] as allegory, and some Gnostics interpreted Jesus himself as an allegory. Modern Gnosticism has been a growing religious movement since fifty-two Gnostic texts were rediscovered at [[Nag Hammadi library|Nag Hammadi]] in 1945. The movement was also given a boost by the publication in 2006 of the Gospel of Judas.
For Christians, Jesus' crucifixion was the defining moment in the history of the world, a kind of "axis mundi". It is remembered not as a tragedy, but as a triumph--and not simply because Jesus escaped as a result of his resurrection and subsequent ascension. Various Christian theologies attempt to explain how Christ's sacrifice has brought salvation into the world; this is the field of soteriology.  


[[Marcionites]] were 2nd-century Gentile followers of the Christian theologian [[Marcion of Sinope]]. They believed that Jesus rejected the [[Tanakh|Jewish Scriptures]], or at least the parts that were incompatible with his teachings.<ref name=Wace>[[Henry Wace|Wace, Henry]], [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/info/marcion-wace.html Commentary on Marcion]</ref> Seeing a stark contrast between the vengeful God of the Old Testament and the loving God of Jesus, Marcion came to the conclusion that the Jewish God and Jesus were two separate deities. Like some Gnostics, Marcionites saw the Jewish God as the evil creator of the world, and Jesus as the savior from the material world. They also believed Jesus was not human, but instead a completely divine spiritual being whose material body, and thus his crucifixion and death, were divine illusions. Marcion was the first known early Christian to have created a canon, which consisted of ten [[Pauline epistles]], and [[Gospel of Marcion|a version]] of the Gospel of Luke (possibly without the first two chapters that are in modern versions, and without Jewish references),<ref>Bart D. Ehrman, ''Lost Christianities'', Oxford, 2003, p. 103, p. 104-105, p.108</ref> and his treatise on the ''Antithesis'' between the Old and New Testaments. Marcionism was declared a heresy by proto-orthodox Christianity.
:*Several theories emphasize the legal helplessness of sinful humanity before God as unwavering judge (the "appeasement" or "commercial" theory), or Satan as debtor (the "ransom" theory), with sinless Christ as the only acceptable payment.  


The theological concept of Jesus as Christ was refined by a series of [[ecumenical council]]s beginning in the fourth century AD, the first and second of which produced the [[Nicene Creed | Nicene]] (or Niceno-Constantinopolitan) Creed. Referring to the Second Person of the Trinity, it affirms belief
:*The ''Christus Victor'' theory conceives of Christ's life and death as revelations of God's love, whereby Christ descended to earth for us and (in the words of the liturgy of Saint Basil) "conquered death by death, and became the firstborn of the dead."


:...in one Lord Jesus Christ,
:*Another (Pauline) image is that of Christ as the "last Adam," whose sinless perfection atones (justifying man and making him righteous in the sight of God) for Adam's sin: "For as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ" (I Corinthians 15:22, cf. Romans 5:12 ff.) Orthodox and Catholic tradition similarly juxtaposes Eve with the Virgin Mary (though the station of Mary is by no means comparable to that of Christ).
:the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds;
:God of God, Light of Light, very God of very God;
:begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father,  
:by Whom all things were made:  
:Who for us men and for our salvation came down from Heaven,  
:and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost of the Virgin Mary, and was made man:
:And was crucified also for us under Pontius Pilate; he suffered and was buried:
:And the third day he rose again according to the Scriptures:
:And ascended into Heaven, and sitteth on the right hand of the Father:
:And he shall come again, with glory, to judge both the quick and the dead:
:Whose Kingdom will have no end [Anglican version]


These councils were convened in an atmosphere of politically-charged theological debate, and their conclusions absolutely do not represent a consensus of Christian views at the time. Indeed, each successive council resulted in the expulsion of yet another branch of Christianity: [[Arianism]] after the second; [[Nestorianism]] after the third, and so on. Today the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] (the so-called "Nestorian" church) recognizes only two such councils; the [[Oriental Orthodox]] (non-[[Chalcedonian]]) churches, the three; [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], seven; and [[Roman Catholicism]], twenty-one (the most recent being [[Vatican II]]).While Protestants do not usually accord the same authority to these councils as would Catholics or Orthodox (with some churches opposing the use of creeds as a violation of [[sola scriptura]]), they would not likely object to the content of at least the first seven councils. In church, mainline Protestants generally recite the Nicene and [[Apostles' Creed]]s, and may have their own denominational statements of belief (such as the [[Westminster Confession | Westminster]] or [[Augsburg Confession]]s).
==Jesus in Islam==
{{Main|Jesus in Islam}}
The Qur'an repeatedly names Jesus (Arabic ''Isa'') as one of the prophets of Islam. (The terms ''nabi'' and ''rasul'' are both used.) A hadith (tradition) of Burkhari (4.55.651) adds that he was the last prophet to appear before Muhammad.  


Most Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]], being one of the three divine persons who make up the single [[Ousia|substance]] of God, a concept known as the [[Trinity|Holy Trinity]]. In this respect, Jesus is both distinct and yet of the same being as [[God the Father]] and the [[God the Holy Spirit]].<ref name="Trinity">{{niv|John|1:1|John 1:1}}; {{niv|John|8:58|8:58}}; {{niv|John|10:30|10:30}}</ref> They believe Jesus is the Son of God, and also the Messiah. Following {{niv|john|1:1|John 1:1,}} Christians have identified Jesus as "the Word" (or [[Logos#Use in Christianity|Logos]]) of God. Most further believe that Jesus has two natures in one person: that he is fully God and fully human, a concept known as the [[hypostatic union]]. However, [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] professes a [[Miaphysite]] interpretation, while the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] professes a form of [[Nestorianism]].
Christian beliefs affirmed by the Qur'an include


Some Christians however profess various [[nontrinitarian]] views. [[Arianism]], denounced as a heresy by the second council, taught that Jesus is subordinate to God the Father.<ref name="Arian">{{sourcetext|source=Bible|version=King James|book=John|chapter=14|verse=28}};</ref> [[Binitarianism|Binitarians]] believe that Jesus is God, although a separate being from God the Father, and that the Holy Spirit is an impersonal force. [[Unitarian Christianity|Unitarian Christians]] believe that Jesus was a [[prophet]] of God, and merely human. The [[Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (Mormons) theology maintains that God the Father (Heavenly Father), Jesus Christ, and the Holy Ghost are three separate and distinct beings who together constitute the [[Godhead]]. Finally, most [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] believe Jesus to be [[Michael (archangel)|Michael the Archangel]], who became a human to come down to earth.<ref name=Jesus-is-Michael>"Jesus The Ruler "Whose Origin Is From Early Times", ''The Watchtower'', June 15, 1998, p. 22.</ref>
:*the virginal conception by Mary (3:47, 21:91)
:*Jesus' miracles, such as healing the blind or leprous, or bringing a clay bird to life (3:49, cf. the ''Protevangelion Jacobi'' for this last)
:*his mixed reception, with some disbelieving (2:253)
:*his status as the Messiah (''as-Masih''), who "confirmed the Torah that had come before him" (61:6), and predicted the future appearance of "Ahmad" (i.e. Muhammad, 61:6)
:*the title "Word of God" (''Kamilat Allah'', 3:45)
:*his Second Coming--"there is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his death; and on the Day of Judgment he will be a witness against them..." (4:159).  In that connection, a number of hadith describe a final contest between Jesus (perhaps accompanied by the Mahdi) and ''Dajjal,'' the Antichrist.  


Another crucial aspect of Christology is [[soteriology]], i.e. the issue of how it is that Jesus provides salvation. [[Paul of Tarsus]] wrote that just as sin entered the world through [[Adam and Eve|Adam]] (known as [[The Fall of Man]]), so salvation from sin comes through Jesus, the second Adam ({{niv|Romans|5:12-21|Rom 5:12–21}}; {{niv|1_Corinthians|15:21-22|1 Cor 15:21–22}}). Most Christians believe that Jesus' death and resurrection provide salvation not only from personal sin, but from the condition of sin itself. This ancestral or [[original sin]]<ref name=originalsin>Western Christianity, following [[Augustine of Hippo]], generally affirms that humanity inherited both the tendency to sin and the guilt of Adam and Eve's sin. The doctrine in Eastern Christianity is that humanity inherited the tendency to sin, but not the guilt for Adam and Eve's sin. This doctrine, also adopted by some in the Western Church as a form of [[Arminianism]], is sometimes called [[semipelagianism]]. A minority of Christians affirm [[Pelagianism]], which states that neither the condition nor the guilt of original sin is inherited; rather, we all freely face the same choice between sin and salvation that Adam and Eve did. Pelagianism was opposed by the Council of Carthage in 418 AD/CE.</ref> separated humanity from God, making all liable to condemnation to eternal punishment in Hell ({{niv|Romans|3:23|Rom 3:23}}). However, Jesus' death and resurrection reconciled humanity with God, granting eternal life in Heaven to the faithful ({{niv|John|14:2-3|John 14:2–3}}).
Christian beliefs rejected by the Qur'an include:


== Jesus in Islam  ==
:*the Incarnation: "They do blaspheme who say "Allah is Christ the son of Mary..." (5:72). "Christ the son of Mary was no more than a messenger; many were the messengers that passed away before him." (5:75)
{{main|Islamic views of Jesus}}
In Islam, Jesus (known as '''[[Islamic view of Jesus|Isa]]''' in Arabic, [[Arabic]]: عيسى), is considered one of God's most-beloved and important [[prophets of Islam|prophets]] and the Messiah.<ref name=Grand_Mufti_of_Syria>Sheikh Ahmad Kuftaro, [http://www.kuftaro.org/english/Islam/jesus.htm "What is Islam? Jesus"], Kuftaro.org, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref> Like Christian writings, the seventh-century [[Qur'an]] holds that Jesus was born without a biological father to the virgin Mary, by the will of God (in Arabic, [[Allah]]) and for this reason is referred to as ''Isa ibn Maryam'' (English: Jesus son of Mary), a [[matronymic]] (since he had no biological father). (Qur'an {{Quran-usc|3|45}}, {{Quran-usc|19|21}}, {{Quran-usc|19|35}}, {{Quran-usc|21|91}}) In Muslim traditions, Jesus lived a perfect life of nonviolence, showing kindness to humans and animals (similar to the other Islamic prophets), without material possessions, and abstaining from [[sin]].<ref name=Jesus_abstained_from_sin>III&E, [http://www.islam.tc/alhilaal/site/poi.html "Prophethood in Islam"], Accessed March 19, 2006</ref> Most Muslims believe that Jesus abstained from alcohol, and many believe that he also abstained from eating animal flesh. Similarly, Islamic belief also holds that Jesus could perform miracles, but only by the will of God. <ref name=Soundvision.com>[http://www.soundvision.com/Info/Jesus/inIslam.asp "The Islamic and Christian views of Jesus: a comparison"], ISoundvision, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref> However, Muslims do not believe Jesus to have divine nature as God nor as the Son of God. Islam greatly separates the status of creatures from the status of the creator and warns against believing that Jesus was divine. (Qu'ran {{Quran-usc|3|59}}, {{Quran-usc|4|171}}, {{Quran-usc-range|5|116|117}}). Muslims believe that Jesus received a gospel from God called the ''[[Injil]]'' in Arabic that corresponds to the Christian New Testament, but that some parts of it have been misinterpreted, misrepresented,  passed over, or textually distorted over time so that they no longer accurately represent God's original message to mankind (See [[Tahrif]]).<ref name=Abdullah_Ibrahim>Abdullah Ibrahim, [http://www.arabicbible.com/islam/hit.htm "The History of the Quran and the Injil"], Arabic Bible Outreach Ministry, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref>


Muslims also do not believe in Jesus' sacrificial role, nor do they believe that he died on the cross. In fact, Islam does not accept any human sacrifice for sin. The Qur'an states that Jesus' death was merely an illusion of God to deceive his enemies, and that Jesus ascended to heaven.<ref name=Grand_Mufti_of_Syria>Sheikh Ahmad Kuftaro, [http://www.kuftaro.org/english/Islam/jesus.htm "What is Islam? Jesus"], Kuftaro.org, accessed March 15, 2006.</ref> (Qur'an {{Quran-usc-range|4|157|158}}.) Based on the quotes attributed to Muhammad, some Muslims believe that Jesus will return to the world in the flesh following [[Imam Mahdi]] to defeat the ''[[Dajjal]]'' (an [[Antichrist]]-like figure, translated as "Deceiver"). <ref name=Mufti_A.H._Elias>Mufti A.H. Elias, [http://www.islam.tc/prophecies/jesus.html "Jesus (Isa) A.S. in Islam, and his Second Coming"], Islam.tc, accessed March 15,2006.</ref> Muslims believe he will descend at [[Damascus]], presently in [[Syria]], once the world has become filled with sin, deception, and injustice; he will then live out the rest of his natural life. Sunni Muslims believe that after his death, Jesus will be buried alongside Muhammad in [[Medina]], presently in [[Saudi Arabia]]. <ref name=AH_Elias>Mufti A.H. Elias, [http://www.islam.tc/prophecies/jesus.html "Jesus (Isa) A.S. in Islam, and his Second Coming"], Islam.tc Network, accessed May 10, 2006.</ref>  However, the sects of [[Sunni Muslim|Sunni]] and [[Shiite Muslim|Shi'ite]] Islam are divided over this issue. Some Islamic scholars like [[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]] and [[Amin Ahsan Islahi]] question [[hadith|quotes attributed to Muhammad]] regarding a second coming of Jesus, as they believe it is against different verses of the Qur'an.<ref>Geoffrey Parrinder, ''Jesus in the Quran'', p.187, Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 1996, ISBN 1-85168-094-2.[http://www.studying-islam.org/articletext.aspx?id=742]</ref><ref>[[Javed Ahmed Ghamidi]], ''Qur'anic Verse regarding Second Coming of Jesus''.[http://www.al-mawrid.org/Content/ViewReaderQuestion.aspx?questionId=318]</ref><ref>''The Second Coming of Jesus'', [http://www.renaissance.com.pk Renaissance - Monthly Islamic Journal], Vol. 14, No. 9, September, 2004.[http://www.renaissance.com.pk/septitl2y4.html]</ref>
:*the Trinity: "They do blaspheme who say: God is one of three in a Trinity: for there is no god except One Allah." (5:73) However, 5:116 suggests that the "Trinity" being condemned here is one consisting of God, Jesus and Mary.


The [[Ahmadi|Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Movement (accounting for a very small percentage of the total Muslim population) believes that Jesus survived the crucifixion and later travelled to [[Kashmir]], where he lived and died as a prophet under the name of [[Yuz Asaf]] (whose grave they identify in [[Srinagar]]).<ref name=Ahmadiyya_Muslim_Community>M. M. Ahmad, [http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000094.html#8 "The Lost Tribes of Israel: The Travels of Jesus"], [[Ahmadiyya Muslim Community]], Accessed March 16, 2006.</ref> Mainstream Muslims, however, consider these views heretical. Also, historical research found these accounts to be without foundation.<ref name=Jesus_India>Günter Grönbold, Jesus In Indien, München: Kösel 1985, ISBN 3-466-2070-1. Norbert Klatt, ''Lebte Jesus in Indien?'', Göttingen: Wallstein 1988.</ref>
:*The crucifixion: "...they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not: Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise... (4:157-158) Interestingly, the proposal that another person was crucified in Jesus' stead is anticipated in a text from Nag Hammadi, ''The Second Treatise of the Great Seth'' (56: 6-19).


== Jewish views of Jesus ==
Muslims believe that Jesus revealed a holy book called the ''Injil'' ("Evangel"), but do not identify this with any part of the New Testament as it exists today.
{{main|Judaism's view of Jesus}}


Judaism considers the idea of Jesus being God, or part of a Trinity, or a mediator to God, as heresy.(''[[Emunoth ve-Deoth]]'', II:5) Judaism also does not consider Jesus to be the [[Jewish Messiah|Messiah]] primarily because he did not fulfill the [[Messianic prophecies]] of the [[Tanakh]], nor embodied the personal qualifications of the Messiah.<ref name=notmessiah>Rabbi [[Shraga Simmons]], [http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus"], accessed March 14, 2006; [http://ohr.edu/ask_db/ask_main.php/2637/Q1/ "Why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus"], [[Ohr Somayach, Jerusalem|Ohr Samayach]] - ''Ask the Rabbi'', accessed March 14, 2006; [http://www.askmoses.com/qa_detail.html?h=120&o=350 "Why don't Jews believe that Jesus was the messiah?"], [[AskMoses.com]], accessed March 14, 2006.</ref>
In addition to the Qur'an, a number of hadiths and other traditional sayings quote Jesus. For example he is made to observe that "The world is a bridge, so pass over it and do not inhabit it" (from a Fatehpur Sikri inscription commissioned by Akbar). This raises the fascinating question of how early Muslims were exposed to traditions about Jesus, and whether these might have included authentic strands no longer extant anywhere else.


The ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'' (an authoritative work of [[halakha|Jewish law]]) states:
(Qur'an translations by Yusuf Ali)


<blockquote>Even Jesus the Nazarene who imagined that he would be [[Jewish Messiah|Messiah]] and was killed by the court, was already prophesied by [[Daniel]]. So that it was said, “And the members of the outlaws of your nation would be carried to make a (prophetic) vision stand. And they stumbled” (Daniel 11.14). Because, is there a greater stumbling-block than this one? So that all of the [[prophet]]s spoke that the Messiah redeems Israel, and saves them, and gathers their banished ones, and strengthens their commandments. And this one caused (nations) to destroy Israel by sword, and to scatter their remnant, and to humiliate them, and to exchange the Torah, and to make the majority of the world err to serve a divinity besides God. However, the thoughts of the Creator of the world — there is no force in a human to attain them because our ways are not God's ways, and our thoughts not God's thoughts. And all these things of Jesus the Nazarene, and of ([[Muhammad]]) the [[Ishmael]]ite who stood after him — there is no (purpose) but to straighten out the way for the King Messiah, and to restore all the world to serve God together. So that it is said, “Because then I will turn toward the nations (giving them) a clear lip, to call all of them in the name of God and to serve God (shoulder to shoulder as) one shoulder.” (Zephaniah 3.9). Look how all the world already becomes full of the things of the Messiah, and the things of the [[Torah]], and the things of the commandments! And these things spread among the far islands and among the many nations uncircumcised of heart. (''Hilkhot Melakhim'' 11:10–12)<ref name=hilchotmalachim>[http://www.mechon-mamre.org/i/e511.htm "Hilchot Malachim (laws concerning kings) (Hebrew)"], [[Torah database#Mechon Mamre.28digital freeware.29|MechonMamre.org]], accessed March 14, 2006.</ref></blockquote>
==Jesus in Western culture==
Because of the historic impact of Christianity on the western world the figure of Jesus appears prominently in western cultures. He is a perennial subject of art and discussion both in and out of the church. Much of his influence is particularly tied to the religion of Christianity that claims Jesus as its central figure and the influence various church and para-church organizations wield within society. The impact of the Biblical Jesus of western life and culture is no better illustrated than by the use of the Gregorian Calendar. Additionally, the widespread celebration surrounding the holidays of Easter and Christmas are further testimonies to the effects of Jesus on western culture.


[[Reform Judaism]], the modern progressive movement, states <cite>For us in the Jewish community anyone who claims that Jesus is their savior is no longer a Jew and is an [[apostate]].</cite> (Contemporary American Reform Responsa, #68).<ref name=faqs>[http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/10-Reform/section-15.html "Question 18.3.4: Reform's Position On...What is unacceptable practice?"], faqs.org, accessed March 14, 2006.</ref>
Although religion, Christianity in particular, is seen to be receding in many western socieities the impact of the man Jesus and the religion that claims him as its key figure are easily seen and attested to throughout the western world.


According to Jewish tradition, there were no more prophets after 420 BC|420 BC/BCE, [[Malachi]] being the last prophet, who lived centuries before Jesus. Judaism states that Jesus did not fulfill the requirements set by the [[Torah]] to prove that he was a prophet. Even if Jesus had produced such a sign, Judaism states that no prophet or dreamer can contradict the laws already stated in the Torah ({{niv|Deuteronomy|13:1-5|Deut 13:1–5}})<ref name=noprophet>Rabbi [[Ephraim Buchwald]], [http://www.njop.org/html/REEH5764-2004.html "Parashat Re'eh 5764-2004: Identifying a True Prophet"], [[National Jewish Outreach Program]], accessed March 14, 2006; Tracey Rich, [http://www.jewfaq.org/prophet.htm "Prophets and Prophecy"], ''Judaism 101'', accessed March 14, 2006; Rabbi Pinchas Frankel, [http://www.ou.org/about/judaism/history.htm "Covenant of History: A Fools Prophecy"], [[Orthodox Union|Orthodox Union of Jewish Congregations of America]], accessed March 14, 2006;Laurence Edwards, [http://urj.org/Articles/index.cfm?id=2819&pge_prg_id=26382&pge_id=3453 "Torat Hayim - Living Torah: No Rest(s) for the Wicked"], [[Union for Reform Judaism|Union of American Hebrew Congregations]], accessed March 14, 2006.</ref>
==Jewish views of Jesus==
{{Main|Jewish views of Jesus}}


[[Mandaeanism]] regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet (mšiha kdaba) of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet [[John the Baptist]], although they do believe that John baptized Jesus.
==Humanist views of Jesus==
Many humanists and non-theists have an admiration for Jesus as a moral example and sometimes as a spiritual teacher, although there are obviously different meanings in the word. Most humanists believe that Jesus probably did exist, although some follow mythicist scholars in thinking that the stories of Jesus are myths. Some humanists tend to admire the direction of Jesus' anti-authoritarian, anti-absolutist morality, and the challenge they present to the ethics of the [[Old Testament]]<ref>British Humanist Association, [http://www.humanism.org.uk/site/cms/contentViewArticle.asp?article=1212 A humanist discussion of... Jesus] (2006)</ref>.


The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus, with some representatives (such as [[A Course In Miracles]]) going so far as to trance-[[channeling (mediumistic)|channel]] him. Many recognize him as a "great teacher" (or "[[Ascended Master]]") similar to [[Buddha]], and teach that Christhood is something that all may attain. At the same time, many New Age teachings, such as [[reincarnation]], appear to reflect a discomfort with traditional Christianity. Many New Age subgroups claim Jesus as a supporter, often incorporating contrasts with or protests against the Christian mainstream. Thus, for example, [[Theosophy]] and its offshoots have Jesus studying [[esotericism]] in the [[Himalaya]]s or [[Egypt]] during his "lost years."
[[Thomas Jefferson]], one of the Founding Fathers that many consider to have been a deist, created a "Jefferson Bible" for the Indians entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings. Similarly, [[Thomas Paine]] wrote of the Bible in his controversial book ''The Age of Reason''.


There are others who emphasize Jesus' moral teachings. Many [[humanism|humanists]], [[atheism|atheists]] and [[agnosticism|agnostics]] empathize with these moral principles. [[Thomas Jefferson]], one of the Founding Fathers that many consider to have been a [[deism|deist]], created a "[[Jefferson Bible]]" for the Indians entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings.
==Mandaean views of Jesus==
 
[[Mandaeanism]] regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet (mšiha kdaba) of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet [[John the Baptist]], although they do believe that John baptized Jesus.
==Legacy==
=== Cultural effect of Jesus ===
[[Image:Michelangelo Petersdom Pieta.JPG|thumb|left|''[[Pietà]]'', [[Michelangelo]], 16th c.: Jesus' mother Mary holds the body of her dead son]]
 
{{see also|Images of Jesus|Dramatic portrayals of Jesus|Jesus in popular culture}}
 
According to most Christian interpretations of the Bible, the theme of Jesus' preachings was that of [[repentance]], forgiveness of sin, grace, and the coming of the [[Kingdom of God]]. Jesus extensively trained disciples who, after his death, interpreted and spread his teachings. Within a few decades his followers comprised a religion clearly distinct from [[Judaism]]. Christianity spread throughout the [[Roman Empire]] under a version known as [[Nicene Christianity]] and became the state religion under [[Constantine the Great]]. Over the centuries, it spread to most of Europe, and around the world.
 
Jesus has been drawn, painted, sculpted, and [[Dramatic portrayals of Jesus|portrayed on stage and in films]] in many different ways, both serious and humorous. In fact most medieval art and literature, and many since, were centered around the figure of Jesus. A number of popular novels, such as ''[[The Da Vinci Code]]'', have also portrayed various ideas about Jesus. Many of the sayings attributed to Jesus have become part of the culture of [[Western world|Western civilization]]. There are many items purported to be [[relics of Jesus]], of which the most famous are the [[Shroud of Turin]] and the [[Sudarium of Oviedo]].
 
Other legacies include a view of God as more fatherly, merciful, and more forgiving, and the growth of a belief in an [[afterlife]] and in the [[resurrection of the dead]]. His teaching promoted the value of those who had commonly been regarded as inferior: women, the poor, ethnic outsiders, children, prostitutes, the sick, prisoners, etc. Jesus and his message have been interpreted, explained and understood by many people. Jesus has been explained notably by [[Paul of Tarsus]], [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Martin Luther]], and more recently by [[C.S. Lewis]].
 
For some, the legacy of Jesus has been a long history of [[Christianity and anti-Semitism|Christian anti-Semitism]], although in the wake of [[the Holocaust]] many Christian groups have gone to considerable lengths to reconcile with Jews and to promote inter-faith dialogue and mutual respect. For others, Christianity has often been linked to European [[colonialism]] (see [[British Empire]], [[Portuguese Empire]], [[Spanish Empire]], [[French colonial empire]], [[Dutch colonial empire]]); conversely, Christians have often found themselves as oppressed minorities in Asia, the Middle East, and in the [[Maghreb]].
 
== Notes ==
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
<references />
</div>
 
== References ==
* Allison, Dale. ''Jesus of Nazareth: Millenarian Prophet.''  Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3144-7
* Brown, Raymond E. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' New York: Doubleday, 1997. ISBN 0-385-24767-2
* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah.'' Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1988. ISBN 0-664-25017-3
* Cohen, Shaye J.D. ''The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. ISBN 0-520-22693-3
* Crossan, John Dominic. ''The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant.'' New York: HarperSanFrancisco, 1993. ISBN 0-06-061629-6
* Guy Davenport and Benjamin Urrutia. ''The Logia of Yeshua ; The Sayings of Jesus''. Washington, DC: 1996. ISBN 1-887178-70-8
* De La Potterie, Ignace. "The Hour of Jesus." New York: Alba House, 1989.
* Durant, Will. ''Caesar and Christ.'' New York: Simon and Schuster, 1944. ISBN 0-671-11500-6
* Ehrman, Bart.  ''The Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-514183-0
* Ehrman, Bart. ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings.'' New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0-19-515462-2
* Fredriksen, Paula. ''Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews: A Jewish Life and the Emergence of Christianity.'' New York: Vintage, 2000. ISBN 0-679-76746-0
* Fredriksen, Paula. ''From Jesus to Christ.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. ISBN 0-300-04864-5
* Finegan, Jack. ''Handbook of Biblical Chronology'', revised ed. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. ISBN 1-56563-143-9.
* [[John P. Meier|Meier, John P.]], ''A Marginal Jew:  Rethinking the Historical Jesus'', New York: [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Doubleday]],  
:  v. 1, ''The Roots of the Problem and the Person'', 1991. ISBN 0-385-26425-9
:  v. 2, ''Mentor, Message, and Miracles'', 1994.  ISBN 0-385-46992-6
:  v. 3, ''Companions and Competitors'', 2001. ISBN 0-385-46993-4
 
* O'Collins, Gerald. ''Interpreting Jesus.'' Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1983.
* Pelikan, Jaroslav. ''Jesus Through the Centuries: His Place in the History of Culture.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999. ISBN 0-300-07987-7
* Robinson, John A. T. ''Redating the New Testament.'' Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2001 (original 1977). ISBN 1-57910-527-0.
* Sanders, E.P. ''The Historical Figure of Jesus.'' New York: Penguin, 1996. ISBN 0-14-014499-4
* Sanders, E.P. ''Jesus and Judaism.'' Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1987. ISBN 0-8006-2061-5
* Vermes, Geza. ''Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1981. ISBN 0-8006-1443-7
* Vermes, Geza. ''The Religion of Jesus the Jew.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1993. ISBN 0-8006-2797-0
* Vermes, Geza. ''Jesus in his Jewish Context.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-3623-6
* Wilson, A.N. ''Jesus.'' London: Pimlico, 2003. ISBN 0-7126-0697-1
* Wright, N.T. ''Jesus and the Victory of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 1997. ISBN 0-8006-2682-6
* Wright, N.T. ''The Resurrection of the Son of God: Christian Origins and the Question of God.'' Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2003. ISBN 0-8006-2679-6
 
== External links ==
* [http://about-jesus.org About-Jesus.org] (Christian)
* [http://www.wikichristian.org/index.php?title=Jesus Jesus Christ at WikiChristian]
* [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] ''In Parallel Latin & English -- The Complete Christ Sayings''
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08374c.htm Jesus Christ Catholic Encyclopedia article]
* [http://www.lds.org/library/display/0,4945,90-1-10-1,00.html Latter-day Saint statement on the divinity of Jesus Christ]
* [http://www.atmajyoti.org/spirwrit-christianity.asp An Hindu perspective on Jesus]
* [http://www.islamfrominside.com/Pages/Articles/Jesus%20-%20An%20Islamic%20Perspective.html An Islamic perspective on Jesus]
* [http://www.monergism.com/thethreshold/articles/topic/christ.html The Historic & Reformation View of Jesus Christ]: Solus Christus, Sola Gratia, Sola Fide, Sola Scriptura, Soli Deo Gloria
* [http://www.christnotes.org/dictionary.php?dict=sbd&id=2398 Jesus Christ] - Smith's Bible Dictionary article
 
 
'''Historical and skeptical views'''
* [http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/jesus.htm Overview of the Life of Jesus] A summary of New Testament accounts.
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/ From Jesus to Christ] — A [[Frontline (PBS TV series)|Frontline]] documentary on Jesus and early Christianity.
* [http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/indexb.html The Jewish Roman World of Jesus]
* [http://pages.ca.inter.net/~oblio/jhcjp.htm The Jesus Puzzle] - [[Earl Doherty]]'s website.
* [http://www.geocities.com/paulntobin/jesus.html Skeptic's Guide to Jesus]


==New Age views of Jesus==
{{main|Neoapocrypha}}
The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus, with some representatives (such as [[Neoapocrypha#A_Course_in_Miracles_.281976.29|''A Course in Miracles'']]) going so far as to trance-[[channeling (mediumistic)|channel]] him. Many recognize him as a "great teacher" (or "[[Ascended Master]]") similar to [[Buddha]], and teach that Christhood is something that all may attain. At the same time, many New Age teachings, such as [[reincarnation]], appear to reflect a discomfort with traditional Christianity. Many New Age subgroups claim Jesus as a supporter, often incorporating contrasts with or protests against the Christian mainstream. Thus, for example, [[Theosophy]] and its offshoots have Jesus studying [[esotericism]] in the [[Himalaya]]s or [[Egypt]] during his "lost years."


[[Category:CZ Live]]
==References==
[[Category:Religion Workgroup]]
{{Reflist}}[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]

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By virtue of the impact of Christianity, Jesus (also known as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth) is one of the most influential people in history. European literature, art and music would be unimaginable without their Christian heritage, and translations of the Christian Bible number among the foundational literature of many languages. Most of the world now follows the Gregorian calendar, based on the supposed number of years since Jesus' birth.

The question "Who was Jesus?" seems a simple one, yet the answers which have been proposed defy easy summary. Most people regard him as the founder of Christianity. Christians (with some exceptions) worship him as God incarnate, the Second Person of the Trinity. Muslims recognize Jesus as one of the prophets of Islam, without attributing divinity to him. Even humanists who reject the religious claims, or who doubt the miracles attributed to him, have been known to admire Jesus as a great moral teacher. Mormons believe that Jesus came to North America and preached to the inhabitants after leaving Judea. Jews do not believe that Jesus was divine, nor that he was the Messiah or a prophet.

Among historians, almost every aspect of Jesus' life is either unknown or disputed. Most scholars would accept the description of him as a first-century Palestinian Jew--more specifically, as an itinerant preacher/healer/exorcist active in Galilee and Judea. We may be reasonably confident that he was baptized by John the Baptist in the AD 20s, and crucified at the command of Roman governor Pontius Pilate during the late 20s or early 30s AD. With less certainty, scholars have characterized Jesus as a wisdom teacher; a social reformer; a rabbi; a folk magician; or an apocalyptic who expected the world to end. Especially controversial would be the suggestions that he intended to found the religion of Christianity, or that he believed (or declared) himself to be the Messiah.

Name

Jesus has the same name as Old Testament hero Joshua, whose Hebrew name Yehoshua (יהושוע) becomes Yeshua (ישוע) in Aramaic (Jesus' native language). Greek being the lingua franca of the Roman Empire as well as early Christianity, Yeshua came to be rendered as Iesous (Ιησους). It entered English by way of Latin (Iēsus). [1]

Christ is a title and not a part of his name. Christos (χριστος) is the Greek translation for the Hebrew Moshiach ("Messiah"), and literally means "anointed one." The original reference was to the family of ceremonies for crowning a king, or ordaining a prophet, which involved pouring oil upon the head. Whether these and other titles were used during his lifetime, or by him, and what they might have meant, are all uncertain.

Jesus is often referred to as "Jesus of Nazareth," after the town where he grew up, sometimes as a secular alternative to "Jesus Christ."

Dates

None of the historical sources give the year of Jesus' birth, the year of his death, or his age at death in unambiguous form. Tradition says that he was born towards the end of the reign of Herod the Great, who died in 4 BC. Some of the earliest estimates of his birth are 6-7 BC, and it is widely agreed that Jesus was executed during the governorship of Pontius Pilate (AD 26-36). Biblical scholars believe he lived roughly 33 1/2 years. Recent scholarship has focused on the years AD 29, 30, or 33 as the most likely possibilities of the date of his crucifixion.

Sources

The major source of historical knowledge about Jesus is the Christian Gospels, which are based on documents written within living memory of the events described in them. The Letters of St Paul, which are older than the Gospels, also attest to the historical reality of Jesus. There are no contemporary references to Jesus from non-Christian sources, although there are a few from the following decades, in writers such as Tacitus and Pliny the Younger. Some writers therefore deny that Jesus was a historical figure at all.

The canonical gospels--Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John--are religious biographies that stress Jesus' fulfillment of Old Testament prophecy, his teachings on the Kingdom of God or Kingdom of Heaven, and the miracles which attended his life and death. The oldest of these, Mark, is usually dated to within a few years of AD 70. John is generally regarded as the latest, though the dates proposed for it vary widely (from the AD 70's to the early 2nd century). The four are linked not only by having been selected by the early church for preservation and dissemination, but also through their textual history. In particular, the synoptics (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) share much material (often verbatim), albeit rearranged.

The Q Document is a hypothetical document reconstructed from the synoptic gospels, with some scholars adding corollary readings from non-canonical "sayings Gospels" such as the Gospel of Thomas. It is based on the observation that Matthew and Luke each incorporate almost the whole of Mark, but add other material. As much of this added material is identical--consisting largely of sayings attributed to Jesus--many scholars speculate that Matthew and Luke copied not only Mark but another source, no longer extant, called Q (an abbreviation for the German Quelle, meaning "wellspring" or "source"). If Q existed in a collected form, it could have been a written document or an oral tradition. Q has become an important topic in Jesus research, because the material thus identified might constitute an older and perhaps more reliable stratum.

Ancient non-Christian sources include scattered references to Jesus in the writings of Flavius Josephus, Pliny the Younger, Tacitus, and Suetonius. Josephus was a Jewish historian who, in about AD 93, briefly described the careers of John the Baptist and Jesus. One passage, the so-called Testimonium Flavianum, is suspected to have suffered corruption by Christian editors. Around AD 100, Pliny the Younger wrote to the emperor Trajan for advice on what policy to adopt toward Christians in his jurisdiction, noting several basic details about the sect. The Roman historians Tacitus and Suetonius, writing in the early 2nd century, also mention Jesus briefly (if the latter's "Chrestus" in fact refers to the same man).

Noncanonical Christian writings date from the 2nd century on, although elements of them may be based on earlier sources which are now unknown. This includes some literature not recognized by the emerging Christian orthodoxy, such as the Gospel of Thomas (see above), as well as the writings of the church fathers (which were recognized, but not as canon).

The Talmuds, ancient compilations of Jewish law and tradition, include some 3rd-century recollections of 1st-century events. These may include scattered (and uncomplimentary) references to Jesus.

Jesus in the canonical Gospels

For more information, see: Canonical Gospels.

Christians normally encounter the story of Jesus as a conflation of the canonical gospels, which many churches read from the pulpit according to a regular cycle. (Indeed, the synoptics may have been composed around such a calendar.) Many of the events listed here are associated with Christian holidays, such as Christmas (for Jesus' birth) or Easter (for his resurrection).

Jesus' geneaology. The first sentence of the New Testament (Matthew 1:1) calls Jesus "the son of David, the son of Abraham," thereby linking him to two key figures of the Old Testament. Abraham is the ancestor of the Jewish people. King David's reign marks a high point in the history of Israel, whose hoped-for revival was expressed through messianic expectations. Matthew (1:1-17) and Luke (3:23-38) give somewhat different lists of ancestors.

The Nativity. Both Matthew and Luke place Jesus' birth in Bethlehem (but have him grow up in Nazareth), and affirm the virginal conception. Matthew (chapters 1 and 2) adds the Star of Bethlehem, the Adoration of the Magi, the Flight into Egypt, and the Massacre of the Innocents. Luke (chapters 1 and 2) gives us the Annunciation, the Census of Quirinius, and the appearance of angels to shepherds in the field.

The Epiphany. All four gospels introduce the adult Jesus by way of John the Baptist, who baptizes him.

"And when Jesus had been baptized he at once came up from the water, and suddenly the heavens opened and he saw the Spirit of God descending like a dove and coming down on him. And suddenly there was a voice from heaven, 'This is my Son, the Beloved; my favor rests on him." (Matthew 3: 16-17; cf. Mark 1: 10 ff, Luke 3: 21 ff, John 1:32).

The Temptation. After Jesus' baptism, he fasts in the wilderness, where he is tempted (unsuccessfully) by the devil. (Matthew 4, Mark 1:12-13, Luke 4).

Calling of Disciples Jesus summons his first disciples (Matthew 4:18-22, Mark 1:16-20, Luke 5:1-11) and later--with a full complement of twelve--sends them out to preach (Matthew 10; Mark 6:7-13; Luke 6:12-16, also 9:1-6). Many scholars believe the twelve disciples thus appointed to represent the Twelve Tribes of Israel. (Jesus had many more followers than twelve.) The lists of names subtly differ from gospel to gospel.

Sermons. Matthew chapters 5 - 7 gives us the Sermon on the Mount, in which Jesus calls on his followers to turn the other cheek (5:39), "love your enemies" (5:44), and practice the Golden Rule (7:12). Other highlights include the Beatitudes (5:3-11) and the Lord's Prayer (6:9-13). Similar material is found in Luke, but scattered throughout the text rather than concentrated, as in Matthew.

Parables. A "parable" is a short narrative illustrating a spiritual point--often puzzling, or involving a surprising twist--and the classic examples are those of Jesus. The synoptics agree that Jesus told "parables" (the concept is introduced somewhat in Matthew 13, Mark 4, and Luke 8) and give many examples. Here is just one:

"The kingdom of Heaven is like the yeast a woman took and mixed in with three measures of flour till it was leavened all through." (Matthew 13:33).

Miracle stories. All four gospels affirm that Jesus performed miracles. A traditional typology would distinguish between

  • healings (e.g. of the "man born blind" in John 9);
  • exorcisms (e.g., of the Gerasene demoniac in Matthew 8:28-34, Mark 5:1-20, and Luke 8:26-39);
  • "nature miracles" (e.g. walking on water in Matthew 14:22-33, Mark 6: 45-52, and John 6:16-21); and
  • resurrections (e.g. of Lazarus in John 11).

The Transfiguration. The synoptics (Matthew 17:1-6, Mark 9:1-8, Luke 9:28-36) say that, when Jesus took his disciples Peter, John, and James the son of Zebadee to the top of a mountain, Jesus began to shine with light. His disciples also saw him converse with Moses and Elijah, and heard a voice from the clouds.

Apocalypse. The synoptics (Matthew 24, 25; Mark 13, Luke 12) describe Jesus as expecting a time of "sorrows" which will culminate in the Last Judgement. Many false Christs will appear, and the "abomination of desolation" will be set up in Jerusalem. Many scholars connect these passages with the siege of Jerusalem and the destruction of its temple AD 70. Jesus refers to "the Son of Man" (possibly meaning himself); this is an allusion to the seventh chapter of Daniel, the classic text of Jewish apocalypticism.

Jesus' revelation as the Messiah. The synoptics (Matthew 16:13-20; Mark 8:27-30; Luke 9:18-21) have Jesus ask his disciples about their understanding of his role. When Peter calls him the Messiah, Jesus orders the disciples not to tell anyone. Matthew has John the Baptist send messengers to ask Jesus whether he is the Messiah--he tells them to inform John that "the blind see again, and the lame walk" (Matthew 11:5). John has Jesus reveal himself as the Messiah in many situations, notably to a Samaritan woman whom he meets at a well (John 4).

Disputes with Pharisees and Sadducees. The synoptics (Matthew 16:1-12, 21:23 ff, 22, 23; Mark 8:11-21, 11:27-end, 12; Luke 11: 37-53) portray Jesus as angrily debating representatives of two of the major religious factions, the Pharisees and Sadducees (or "scribes"). A major theme is the degree of severity required by Jewish law--Jesus accuses his opponents of over-exactitude and hypocrisy. Their conflict will play a great role in Jesus' later execution. John (8:1-11) gives the story of the "woman caught in adultery," in which the Pharisees and Sadduccees ask Jesus for his legal opinion (the biblically-mandated sentence being death by stoning). His celebrated words: "Let he who is without sin cast the first stone."

Triumphal Entry into Jerusalem. All four gospels (Matthew 21, Mark 11, Luke 19:28 ff, John 12:12 ff) agree that Jesus was welcomed into Jerusalem by crowds shouting messianic slogans--an event commemorated as Palm Sunday.

The Last Supper / Betrayal by Judas. All four gospels (Matthew 26, Mark 14, Luke 22, John 13 and 18) have Judas leave the company in order to betray Jesus to the temple authorities. The synoptics describe the Last Supper (a Passover seder), in which Jesus shares bread and wine with his disciples, saying the words that are repeated with every celebration of the eucharist: "This is my body which is given for you; do this in remembrance of me. This cup is the new covenant in my blood poured out for you." (Luke 22:19-20, cf. I Corinthians 11:23 ff).

The Farewell Discourses. Instead of the Last Supper, John (chapters 13-17) describes a final intimate talk which is considered a highlight of Christian mystical expression. After washing the disciples' feet as an example of service and humility, Jesus gives them "a new commandment"--to "love one another, as I have loved you." (15:12, cf. 13:34). Later sections describe Jesus' relationship with "the Father", and promise the coming of the Paraclete (Holy Spirit).

Arrest According to the synoptics, Jesus spends the night before his death on the Mount of Olives (outside Jerusalem), in prayer (Matthew 26:36 ff, Mark 14:32 ff, Luke 22:39 ff). All four gospels describe Judas as leading temple police to Jesus, who he identifies by kissing him (Matthew 26:47 ff, Mark 14:43 ff, Luke 22:47 ff, John 18).

Trial The gospels describe three distinct trials, all during the same night. The first, before a council of Jewish religious authorities (the Sanhedrin), examines whether Jesus has claimed to be the Messiah and/or the "Son of God." The second, before Pilate, focuses on the issue of whether he claimed to be the "King of the Jews." To all such questions Jesus responds in the affirmative, though John (18:36) has him explain to Pilate that "my kingdom is not of this world." Luke adds a third trial before Herod Antipas, to whom Pilate has sent Jesus to be tried for jurisdictional reasons. (Herod sends him back.) In the end, Pilate--his hand apparently forced by the Jewish community--reluctantly finds Jesus guilty and sentences him to death.

The Passion. All four gospels agree that Jesus was executed by crucifixion, and recount various "Stations of the Cross" that represent successive stages of his agony. The words spoken by Jesus from the cross differ from gospel to gospel. The synoptics agree that Jesus' death was on a Friday which was also the Passover; John says that the day was actually the Day of Preparation (the day before).

Resurrection In all four gospels (Matthew 28, Mark 16 Luke 4, John 20), Mary Magdalene and other female followers of Jesus visit his tomb, and discover that he is in fact alive. (A shorter ending of Mark ends with the discovery of the empty tomb.) Jesus appears to the other disciples later and gives them the "Great Commission" (to take his message to the world). The Gospel of John adds touching farewells to disciples Thomas and Peter.

Ascension. Luke (24:50, cf. Mark 16:19) reports that the disciples watched Jesus ascend into heaven. The Book of Acts (1:19-11) adds that Jesus, in the words of an angel, "will come back in the same way as you have seen him go to heaven." This alludes to the Christian belief in the Second Coming of Christ.

The historical Jesus

For more information, see: Historical Jesus.

Since the Enlightenment, scholars have tried to distinguish Jesus as a historical figure from the figure worshiped by Christianity, although Albert Schweitzer commented that scholars who set out on a "Quest for the Historical Jesus" tend to discover in him a reflection of their own views. Some naturalist scholars focused doubt on the biblical accounts of miracles. Others saw Jesus as a moral teacher whose views are best represented by the Sermon on the Mount. In recent decades, the name "Jesus Studies" has come to describe historical (as opposed to theological) approaches to the study of Jesus. In 1985, the Westar Institute started a project named the Jesus Seminar which inquired into the "voice of Jesus" - two hundred scholars discussed and voted on which stories and statements about Jesus they thought were historically valid. Many of the scholars involved with the Seminar have gone on to develop theories about Jesus, some of which are described below.

A central problem is that the most important sources about Jesus--the canonical gospels--are not accepted as reliable by all scholars due to a number of factors: (1) disagreement in regards to date of authorship, (2) the writers' neutrality is disputed because they were followers of Jesus, and (3) certain details in the gospels are believed to conflict with one another, with external history, or with secular understandings and presuppositions regarding the physical world. As a result, historians must decide whether to

(a) select which information they regard as most probable;
(b) attempt to harmonize seeming discrepancies; or
(c) doubt everything.

Following this last principle, a few scholars (G. A. Wells, Earl Doherty, John Allegro and Robert M. Price) go so far as to doubt the existence of Jesus as a historical figure, often citing the idea of the Mythic Hero and pointing to similarities with the myths of earlier religious saviors[2]. This view has not received widespread support for several reasons, including attestation to Jesus' existence in disparate sources, and the inclusion in the gospel accounts of events potentially embarrassing to early Christians that were unlikely to have been invented. Examples of such embarrassing events include Jesus' execution as a criminal (a detail not found in traditional Jewish messianic lore), and his baptism by John the Baptist (suggesting that Jesus had sins to be forgiven, and an inferior role to John).

Recent scholarly interpretations of Jesus that do not necessarily agree with historical Christian beliefs variously portray him as:

Many other theories have been proposed, but have received less scholarly support.

Jesus in Christianity

For more information, see: Jesus in Christianity.

Christianity encompasses groups and individuals whose Christologies (views on Jesus) are extremely diverse. Nevertheless, certain "mainstream" beliefs can be identified, which would win broad support among the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches (i.e. the overwhelming majority of Christians). These beliefs may be traced partly to the New Testament, and partly to church tradition. Especially influential were the ecumenical councils which established creeds such as the Nicene (or Niceno-Constantinopolitan) Creed.

Christians generally affirm that Jesus was the Messiah whose coming was predicted by the prophets of the Old Testament; and would approve of Peter's words (in Matthew 16:16), "You are the Christ, the Son of the Living God." Perhaps confusingly, Christian tradition hails Jesus not only as the Son of God, but also in some sense as God himself, incarnated as a man. The theology that arose to describe this uses the language of the Incarnation (Jesus being fully human, yet fully divine), and of the Trinity (Jesus being its Second Person, the Son or Logos, who is "eternally begotten of the Father").

The Jesus of Christianity is at once historical and trans-historical. The Nicene Creed expresses the belief that he existed before the creation of the world, and will reign eternally after its end (the subject of eschatology). Moreover, many affirm his dwelling within the hearts of all Christian believers, perhaps all souls, who receive spiritual life from him as grapes do from the vine (John 15:1 ff). The "body of Christ" is identified with the community of believers--the church--as well as with the communion bread. For some churches such as Orthodox and Catholics, Christ is actually present in the Eucharist (Transubstantiation), whereby he unites with his worshipers.

Of the various miracles that the gospels attribute to Jesus, or describe as occurring in his proximity, most amount to signs of his divinity. However, two carry special doctrinal significance: Mary's virginal conception of Jesus (not to be confused with the immaculate conception, or the virgin birth), and Jesus' resurrection from the dead. The first is associated with the Incarnation; the second, with Christ's role as Savior.

For Christians, Jesus' crucifixion was the defining moment in the history of the world, a kind of "axis mundi". It is remembered not as a tragedy, but as a triumph--and not simply because Jesus escaped as a result of his resurrection and subsequent ascension. Various Christian theologies attempt to explain how Christ's sacrifice has brought salvation into the world; this is the field of soteriology.

  • Several theories emphasize the legal helplessness of sinful humanity before God as unwavering judge (the "appeasement" or "commercial" theory), or Satan as debtor (the "ransom" theory), with sinless Christ as the only acceptable payment.
  • The Christus Victor theory conceives of Christ's life and death as revelations of God's love, whereby Christ descended to earth for us and (in the words of the liturgy of Saint Basil) "conquered death by death, and became the firstborn of the dead."
  • Another (Pauline) image is that of Christ as the "last Adam," whose sinless perfection atones (justifying man and making him righteous in the sight of God) for Adam's sin: "For as all die in Adam, so all will be made alive in Christ" (I Corinthians 15:22, cf. Romans 5:12 ff.) Orthodox and Catholic tradition similarly juxtaposes Eve with the Virgin Mary (though the station of Mary is by no means comparable to that of Christ).

Jesus in Islam

For more information, see: Jesus in Islam.

The Qur'an repeatedly names Jesus (Arabic Isa) as one of the prophets of Islam. (The terms nabi and rasul are both used.) A hadith (tradition) of Burkhari (4.55.651) adds that he was the last prophet to appear before Muhammad.

Christian beliefs affirmed by the Qur'an include

  • the virginal conception by Mary (3:47, 21:91)
  • Jesus' miracles, such as healing the blind or leprous, or bringing a clay bird to life (3:49, cf. the Protevangelion Jacobi for this last)
  • his mixed reception, with some disbelieving (2:253)
  • his status as the Messiah (as-Masih), who "confirmed the Torah that had come before him" (61:6), and predicted the future appearance of "Ahmad" (i.e. Muhammad, 61:6)
  • the title "Word of God" (Kamilat Allah, 3:45)
  • his Second Coming--"there is none of the People of the Book but must believe in him before his death; and on the Day of Judgment he will be a witness against them..." (4:159). In that connection, a number of hadith describe a final contest between Jesus (perhaps accompanied by the Mahdi) and Dajjal, the Antichrist.

Christian beliefs rejected by the Qur'an include:

  • the Incarnation: "They do blaspheme who say "Allah is Christ the son of Mary..." (5:72). "Christ the son of Mary was no more than a messenger; many were the messengers that passed away before him." (5:75)
  • the Trinity: "They do blaspheme who say: God is one of three in a Trinity: for there is no god except One Allah." (5:73) However, 5:116 suggests that the "Trinity" being condemned here is one consisting of God, Jesus and Mary.
  • The crucifixion: "...they said (in boast), "We killed Christ Jesus the son of Mary, the Messenger of Allah";- but they killed him not, nor crucified him, but so it was made to appear to them, and those who differ therein are full of doubts, with no (certain) knowledge, but only conjecture to follow, for of a surety they killed him not: Nay, Allah raised him up unto Himself; and Allah is Exalted in Power, Wise... (4:157-158) Interestingly, the proposal that another person was crucified in Jesus' stead is anticipated in a text from Nag Hammadi, The Second Treatise of the Great Seth (56: 6-19).

Muslims believe that Jesus revealed a holy book called the Injil ("Evangel"), but do not identify this with any part of the New Testament as it exists today.

In addition to the Qur'an, a number of hadiths and other traditional sayings quote Jesus. For example he is made to observe that "The world is a bridge, so pass over it and do not inhabit it" (from a Fatehpur Sikri inscription commissioned by Akbar). This raises the fascinating question of how early Muslims were exposed to traditions about Jesus, and whether these might have included authentic strands no longer extant anywhere else.

(Qur'an translations by Yusuf Ali)

Jesus in Western culture

Because of the historic impact of Christianity on the western world the figure of Jesus appears prominently in western cultures. He is a perennial subject of art and discussion both in and out of the church. Much of his influence is particularly tied to the religion of Christianity that claims Jesus as its central figure and the influence various church and para-church organizations wield within society. The impact of the Biblical Jesus of western life and culture is no better illustrated than by the use of the Gregorian Calendar. Additionally, the widespread celebration surrounding the holidays of Easter and Christmas are further testimonies to the effects of Jesus on western culture.

Although religion, Christianity in particular, is seen to be receding in many western socieities the impact of the man Jesus and the religion that claims him as its key figure are easily seen and attested to throughout the western world.

Jewish views of Jesus

For more information, see: Jewish views of Jesus.


Humanist views of Jesus

Many humanists and non-theists have an admiration for Jesus as a moral example and sometimes as a spiritual teacher, although there are obviously different meanings in the word. Most humanists believe that Jesus probably did exist, although some follow mythicist scholars in thinking that the stories of Jesus are myths. Some humanists tend to admire the direction of Jesus' anti-authoritarian, anti-absolutist morality, and the challenge they present to the ethics of the Old Testament[3].

Thomas Jefferson, one of the Founding Fathers that many consider to have been a deist, created a "Jefferson Bible" for the Indians entitled "The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth" that included only Jesus' ethical teachings. Similarly, Thomas Paine wrote of the Bible in his controversial book The Age of Reason.

Mandaean views of Jesus

Mandaeanism regards Jesus as a deceiving prophet (mšiha kdaba) of the false Jewish god Adunay, and an opponent of the good prophet John the Baptist, although they do believe that John baptized Jesus.

New Age views of Jesus

For more information, see: Neoapocrypha.

The New Age movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus, with some representatives (such as A Course in Miracles) going so far as to trance-channel him. Many recognize him as a "great teacher" (or "Ascended Master") similar to Buddha, and teach that Christhood is something that all may attain. At the same time, many New Age teachings, such as reincarnation, appear to reflect a discomfort with traditional Christianity. Many New Age subgroups claim Jesus as a supporter, often incorporating contrasts with or protests against the Christian mainstream. Thus, for example, Theosophy and its offshoots have Jesus studying esotericism in the Himalayas or Egypt during his "lost years."

References

  1. ↑ John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew. New York: Doubleday, 1991 vol. 1:205-7
  2. ↑ As an example of this genre, Robert M. Price's essay Christ a Fiction (1997) Internet Infidels library.
  3. ↑ British Humanist Association, A humanist discussion of... Jesus (2006)
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