Turkey and refugees from Nazis: Difference between revisions

From Citizendium
Jump to navigation Jump to search
imported>D. Matt Innis
(take out tabs to get rid of boxes)
mNo edit summary
 
(52 intermediate revisions by 9 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
"What made Einstein the man of this century was not just his mind, it was also his soul”         
{{subpages}}
         
== Einstein's pleas ==
There are so many dimensions to Albert Einstein that over 600 books have been written about him. This article focuses on a little known facet of his life. During the darkest years of the 20th century Einstein played a role in saving a number of intellectuals  through the safe-haven provided by the government of Turkey. He maintained a correspondence with these scholars and later helped place some of them at US institutions. At times he had to lend his name and reputation to institutions he knew would not hire any Jews as professors to attain these goals. His experience with Harvard was a good case in point.  It was not alone in being Judenfrei regarding its faculty. 
Albert Einstein in the 1930s played a role in saving a number of intellectuals through various safe-havens including one provided by the government of Turkey. He maintained a correspondence with them and later helped place some of these individuals at US institutions. To attain these goals he at times had to lend his name and reputation to American institutions he knew would not hire any Jews as professors.  
Albert Einstein was not only one of the greatest scientists of all times but also a great humanitarian and a proud Jew involved in many Jewish causes.  This article will discuss Albert Einstein’s role in helping to move Jewish intellectuals out of harms way and to place them at universities in the free world.    


==Einstein the rescuer==
{{Image|Einstein letter to Turkish President 1933.png|right|200px|A recently discovered Albert Einstein letter to İsmet İnönü, Prime Minister of Turkey}}
 
[[Image:Example.jpg]]
   
   
''A recently discovered September 17, 1933 letter on the letterhead of OSE, signed by Albert Einstein to Turkish Prime Minister İsmet İnönü.''
A letter dated September 17, 1933 carrying [[Albert Einstein]]'s signature, but not written by Einstein,<ref> Einstein was not in Paris on the day the letter was written, but it is apparent that he was making the request in his capacity of Honorary President of the OSE.</ref> pleaded for Turkey to invite “forty experienced specialists and prominent scholars... to settle and practice in your country."<ref>Einstein A, Letter to Ismet İnönü Prime Minister of Turkey, Archives of Turkey's Prime-Ministry Office, September 17, 1933.</ref>  The hand-written Turkish annotations indicate İnönü transferred the letter to the Ministry for National Education on October 9, 1933. The other annotations are attributable to Reşit Galip, the sitting Minister. One says: “this proposal is incompatible with clauses [in the existing laws],”  another: “[i]t is impossible to accept it due to prevailing conditions,”  indicating that at the outset the proposal was rejected by the Ministry.  


The letter pleaded for Turkey to invite “fourty experienced specialists and prominent scholars... to settle and practice in your country.  The hand-written Turkish annotations are compelling.  The top right notation shows that İnönü transferred the letter to the Maarif Vekaleti, Ministry for National Education on October 9, 1933. The other annotations are attributable to Reşit Galip, the sitting Minister. One says: “this proposal is incompatible with clauses [in the existing laws],”  another: “[i]t is impossible to accept it due to prevailing conditions,”  indicating that at the outset the proposal was rejected by the Ministry. According to Murat Bardakçı’s column,  soon after “Turkey invited more than 40 German scientists and gave them university posts. The University Reform conducted at this time makes us think that someone at higher rank, that is president Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk], personally intervened in the matter.” Atatürk was determined to modernize Turkey.  
Prime Minister İsmet İnönü responded on November 14, 1933, saying "Although I accept that your proposal is very attractive, I have to tell you that I see no possibility of rendering  it compatible with the laws and regulations of our country. ... We have now more than 40 professors and physicians under contract in our employ. Most of them find themselves under the same political conditions while having similar qualifications and capacities.... Therefore I regret to say that  it would be impossible to employ more personnel from among these gentlemen under the current conditions we find ourselves in."


Parenthetically it should be mentioned that Einstein left Belgium for England 10 days before the letter was written, and thus was not in Paris on that day. According to Einstein archivist Barbara Wolf  “it is possible that during his stay in Paris in summer of 1933 Einstein signed a number of blanc sheets with OSE letterhead. More probable (given the small space in which the signature is placed) seems the hypothesis that a representative of OSE met Einstein and had him sign the letter. In any event, Einstein signed it in his capacity of OSE’s Honorary President, and it is not a personal letter.”  In another recently discovered letter Turkish Prime Minister İsmet İnönü responded to Einstein.  
That is, Turkey rejected his plea.


==The outcome ==
On the face of it İnönü’s letter appears to have closed the doors to Einstein’s plea. However, matters did not end with the position taken by İnönü.  The ''Universite Reformu'' conducted at this time makes us think that someone at higher rank, that is president Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk], personally intervened in the matter.”  Atatürk was determined to modernize Turkey.
By 1945 Turkey had saved over 190 intellectuals.  Initially, the majority were saved from Germany, then from Austria after its 1938 takeover by Germany, and again from [[Czechoslovakia]] after the 1939 [[Nazi invasion of Prague]].  Because of Turkey’s neutrality and influence at least one needed professional, dentistry professor [[Alfred Kantorowicz]],[[http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Alfred_Kantorowicz]] was liberated from a nine month incarceration in a concentration camp and allowed to proceed with his family to Istanbul.


[[Image:Example.jpg]]
There is little doubt that [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], Turkey's founder and first president, was personally involved with the emigre professors. Atatürk was in the midst of a major reform effort to modernize his new republic and saw this as an opportunity to encourage intellectual growth.  Soon after the arrival of the first party he was known to have hosted a reception/banquet for them in the Dolmabahçe Palace .  When the Shah of Iran visited Turkey for the first time,  Atatürk personally arranged for [[Alfred Kantorowicz]] to create a set of dentures for him  and for Ophtalmologist Joseph Igersheimer<ref>Namal, A. and Reisman, A.   "[[JOSEPH IGERSHEIMER]] (1879-1965) A visionary ophthalmologist and his contributions before and after exile"  Journal of Medical Biography, The Royal Society of Medicine Press.  Volume 15 November (2007)  pgs 227-234</ref> to give the Shah an eye examination and prescribe new lenses.13. http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Alfred_Kantorowicz


''Ismet İnönü’s letter of response to Einstein. November 14, 1933.''


The İnönü's response to Einstein's request:
“What made Einstein the man of this century was not just his mind, it was also his soul”       


{|align=left
|<font color="darkred">
Distinguished Professor,
I have received your  letter dated 14 November 1933 requesting acceptance by Turkey of 40 professors and physicians who cannot conduct their scientific and medical work in Germany anymore under the laws governing Germany now.
I have also taken note that these gentlemen will accept working without remuneration for a year in our establishments under our government.
Although I accept that your proposal is very attractive, I have to tell you that I see no possibility of rendering  it compatible with the laws and regulations of our country.
Distinguished Professor, as you know, we have now more than 40 professors and physicians under contract in our employ. Most of them find themselves under the same political conditions while having similar qualifications and capacities. These professors and doctors have accepted to work here under the current laws and regulations in power.
At present, we are trying to found a very delicate organism with members of very different origins, culture and languages. Therefore I regret to say that  it would be impossible to employ more personnel from among these gentlemen under the current conditions we find ourselves in.
Distinguished Professor, I express my distress for being unable to fulfill your request and request that you believe in my best sentiments.”
</font>
|}


On the face of it İnönü’s letter appears to have closed the doors to Einstein’s plea. Fortunately matters did not end with the position taken by İnönü when he wrote that letter. Before the end of hostilities in Europe Turkey, had saved over 190 intellectuals.  Moreover they were saved initially from Germany, from Austria after the 1938 Anschluss, and from Czechoslovakia after the 1939 Nazi invasion of Prague.  Because of Turkey’s influence at least one needed professional, dentistry professor Alfred Kantorowicz, was liberated from a nine month incarceration in a concentration camp and allowed to proceed with his family to Istanbul. 
==Resources==
There is little doubt about the fact that Atatürk was personally involved with the emigre professors. Soon after the arrival of the first party he was known to have hosted a reception/banquet for them in the Dolmabahçe Palace .  When the Shah of Iran visited Turkey for the first time,  Atatürk personally arranged for Alfred Kantorowicz[[http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Alfred_Kantorowicz]] to create a set of dentures for him  and for Ophtalmologist Joseph Igersheimer<ref>Namal, A. and Reisman, A.  "JOSEPH IGERSHEIMER (1879-1965) A visionary ophthalmologist and his contributions before and after exile"  Journal of Medical Biography, The Royal Society of Medicine Press.  Volume 15 November (2007)  pgs 227-234</ref> to give the Shah an eye examination and prescribe new lenses. <ref>http://www.thewjc.org/sermons/einstein.htm Viewed  September 3, 2007, Reisman, A. (2007) “Jewish Refugees from Nazism, Albert Einstein, and the Modernization of Higher Education in Turkey (1933-1945).”  Aleph: Historical Studies in Science & Judaism,  No. 7,  Pages 253-281.  http://inscribe.iupress.org/doi/abs/10.2979/ALE.2007.-.7. pgs 253-281</ref>
*http://www.thewjc.org/sermons/einstein.htm Viewed  September 3, 2007, Reisman, A. (2007) “Jewish Refugees from Nazism, Albert Einstein, and the Modernization of Higher Education in Turkey (1933-1945).”  Aleph: Historical Studies in Science & Judaism,  No. 7,  Pages 253-281.  http://inscribe.iupress.org/doi/abs/10.2979/ALE.2007.-.7. pgs 253-281
 
*Reisman, A. “German Jewish Intellectuals’ Diaspora in Turkey:  (1933-1955).” The Historian. Volume 69 issue 3 Page 450-478, Fall 2007
In a personal communcation dated September 5, 2007, Ms. Barbara Wolf, Curator, Albert Einstein Archives, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, wrote: “Although I cannot pretend having read (all) 600 books written about Einstein, at least I dare to claim that I read the most reliable biographies & monographies (reliable: based on authentic, original material) published in German, English and French, except those which are dealing exclusively with AE's scientific research and theories. I do not remember having found any mention of  Einstein's efforts to place Jewish intellectuals in Turkey circa 1933.” Moreover, Marcia Tucker, Curator of the  Archives of the Institute for Advanced Study had a similar response to a similar question.  Personal communcation dated September 5, 2007.  Similar response was also received from professor Tuvia Friling, The Ben-Gurion Research Institute, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel, a noted historian of that period and of that part of the world, eg. Turkey and the Balkans.
*Reisman, A. (2007) “Harvard: Albert Einstein’s Disappointment.”  History News Network. 01-22-07  http://hnn.us/articles/32682.html, “Einstein worked feverishly to rescue kin, friends, kin of friends and even strangers from the maw of Hitler’s Germany. He personally vouched for dozens, establishing in their names as many $2,000 bank accounts (required by immigration authorities) as he could afford. When tapped out, he beseeched friends and colleagues to put up funds, guaranteeing the deposits himself.” http://www.momentmag.com/Exclusive/2007/2007-04/200704-Einstein.html Viewed September 2, 2007
 
*There is some discrepancy as to who originally found this letter in the Foreign Ministry archives. For a discussion of that see,  Reisman, A.  (2006) What a Freshly Discovered Einstein Letter Says About Turkey Today, History News Network, 11-20-06, http://hnn.us/articles/31946.html
Reisman, A. “German Jewish Intellectuals’ Diaspora in Turkey:  (1933-1955).” The Historian. Volume 69 issue 3 Page 450-478, Fall 2007
*This letter has been circulating within Turkey via the web for some time prior to its publication by the  Hürriyet. This author received at least five e-mails from Turkish friends with the letter attached starting early October 2006.   
 
Reisman, A. (2007) “Harvard: Albert Einstein’s Disappointment.”  History News Network. 01-22-07  http://hnn.us/articles/32682.html, “Einstein worked feverishly to rescue kin, friends, kin of friends and even strangers from the maw of Hitler’s Germany. He personally vouched for dozens, establishing in their names as many $2,000 bank accounts (required by immigration authorities) as he could afford. When tapped out, he beseeched friends and colleagues to put up funds, guaranteeing the deposits himself.” http://www.momentmag.com/Exclusive/2007/2007-04/200704-Einstein.html Viewed September 2, 2007
 
There is some discrepancy as to who originally found this letter in the Foreign Ministry archives. For a discussion of that see,  Reisman, A.  (2006) What a Freshly Discovered Einstein Letter Says About Turkey Today, History News Network, 11-20-06, http://hnn.us/articles/31946.html
 
This letter has been circulating within Turkey via the web for some time prior to its publication by the  Hürriyet. This author received at least five e-mails from Turkish friends with the letter attached starting early October 2006.   
“Teklifin mevzuatı kanuniyeyle telifi mümkün değildir.”
“Teklifin mevzuatı kanuniyeyle telifi mümkün değildir.”
“Bunları bugünkü şeriata göre kabule imkan yoktur.”
“Bunları bugünkü şeriata göre kabule imkan yoktur.”
Murat Bardakçı,  “A REQUEST FROM THE GREAT GENIUS TO THE YOUNG REPUBLIC” Hürriyet, 29 October 2006.  A banner first page headline article in a high-circulation broadsheet Turkish daily newspaper.  
Murat Bardakçı,  “A REQUEST FROM THE GREAT GENIUS TO THE YOUNG REPUBLIC” Hürriyet, 29 October 2006.  A banner first page headline article in a high-circulation broadsheet Turkish daily newspaper.  
The first group of invitees in 1933 numbered 30. It later grew to over 190 intellectuals and with families and staff the totaled over 1000 of saved individuals. For a complete listing of the individual intellectuals see Reisman, Turkey's Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and Atatürk's Vision. (Washington DC: New Academia Publishers, 2006) pp 474-478
The first group of invitees in 1933 numbered 30. It later grew to over 190 intellectuals and with families and staff the totaled over 1000 of saved individuals. For a complete listing of the individual intellectuals see Reisman, Turkey's Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and Atatürk's Vision. (Washington DC: New Academia Publishers, 2006) pp 474-478
According to Istanbul University’s  historian of science Prof. Feza Günergün (Cumhuriyet, Science and Technology Supplement, Nov. 3, 2006, Year: 20, Number: 10240) Einstein’s letter of  September 17, 1933 was preceded by the July 6, 1933 agreement between the Turkish government and the “Notgemeinschaft” organization,  (to be discussed later)  at which time contracts for 30 German scientists had already been issued.  Günergün suggested that by his letter “perhaps encouraged by this agreement Einstein made an attempt to send another 40 to Turkey.”  
*According to Istanbul University’s  historian of science Prof. Feza Günergün (Cumhuriyet, Science and Technology Supplement, Nov. 3, 2006, Year: 20, Number: 10240) Einstein’s letter of  September 17, 1933 was preceded by the July 6, 1933 agreement between the Turkish government and the “Notgemeinschaft” organization,  (to be discussed later)  at which time contracts for 30 German scientists had already been issued.  Günergün suggested that by his letter “perhaps encouraged by this agreement Einstein made an attempt to send another 40 to Turkey.”  


Reisman, A.  (2006) What a Freshly Discovered Einstein Letter Says About Turkey Today, History News Network, 11-20-06, http://hnn.us/articles/31946.html
*Reisman, A.  (2006) What a Freshly Discovered Einstein Letter Says About Turkey Today, History News Network, 11-20-06, http://hnn.us/articles/31946.html
The author thanks Ms Barbara Wolff of the Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem for her learned and helpful advice on this matter. Personal communication.
The author thanks Ms Barbara Wolff of the Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem for her learned and helpful advice on this matter. Personal communication.


Rifat Bali, a Turkish historian discovered this document in the Turkish State Archives during November  2006.  
*Rifat Bali, a Turkish historian discovered this document in the Turkish State Archives during November  2006.  
See A. Reisman, Turkey's Modernization 190.  Some of the Emigres served as conduits of communication between colleagues, friends, and relatives left behind and others in the free world. It is a great fortune from a historical perspective that some of this correspondence was preserved for posterity. See Reisman, Arnold, German Jewish Intellectuals’ Diaspora in Turkey:  (1933-1955). The Historian  Vol. 69 no. 3 pages 450-478, Fall.  
See A. Reisman, Turkey's Modernization 190[http://www.newacademia.com/turkeys_modernization/].  Some of the Emigres served as conduits of communication between colleagues, friends, and relatives left behind and others in the free world. It is a great fortune from a historical perspective that some of this correspondence was preserved for posterity. See Reisman, Arnold, German Jewish Intellectuals’ Diaspora in Turkey:  (1933-1955). The Historian  Vol. 69 no. 3 pages 450-478, Fall.  
Ibid 200
*Ibid 200
Ibid 166
*Ibid 166
<http://vonhippel.mrs.org/vonhippel/life/AvHMemoirs9.pdf> Viewed on October 7, 2005.
*<http://vonhippel.mrs.org/vonhippel/life/AvHMemoirs9.pdf> Viewed on October 7, 2005. A. Reisman, Turkey's Modernization 190
A. Reisman, Turkey's Modernization 190
*Ibid 165,166, and 260
Ibid 165,166, and 260
*Ibid 156, 157
Ibid 156, 157
 
==See also==
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]

Latest revision as of 06:01, 31 October 2024

This article is developing and not approved.
 Main Article
 Discussion
Definition [?]
 Related Articles  [?]
Bibliography  [?]
External Links  [?]
Citable Version  [?]
 
https://en.citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Turkey_and_refugees_from_Nazis&printable=yes
This editable Main Article is under development and subject to a disclaimer.

Einstein's pleas

Albert Einstein in the 1930s played a role in saving a number of intellectuals through various safe-havens including one provided by the government of Turkey. He maintained a correspondence with them and later helped place some of these individuals at US institutions. To attain these goals he at times had to lend his name and reputation to American institutions he knew would not hire any Jews as professors.

© Image: Archives of Turkey's Prime-Ministry Office
A recently discovered Albert Einstein letter to İsmet İnönü, Prime Minister of Turkey

A letter dated September 17, 1933 carrying Albert Einstein's signature, but not written by Einstein,[1] pleaded for Turkey to invite “forty experienced specialists and prominent scholars... to settle and practice in your country."[2] The hand-written Turkish annotations indicate İnönü transferred the letter to the Ministry for National Education on October 9, 1933. The other annotations are attributable to Reşit Galip, the sitting Minister. One says: “this proposal is incompatible with clauses [in the existing laws],” another: “[i]t is impossible to accept it due to prevailing conditions,” indicating that at the outset the proposal was rejected by the Ministry.

Prime Minister İsmet İnönü responded on November 14, 1933, saying "Although I accept that your proposal is very attractive, I have to tell you that I see no possibility of rendering it compatible with the laws and regulations of our country. ... We have now more than 40 professors and physicians under contract in our employ. Most of them find themselves under the same political conditions while having similar qualifications and capacities.... Therefore I regret to say that it would be impossible to employ more personnel from among these gentlemen under the current conditions we find ourselves in."

That is, Turkey rejected his plea.

The outcome

On the face of it İnönü’s letter appears to have closed the doors to Einstein’s plea. However, matters did not end with the position taken by İnönü. The Universite Reformu conducted at this time makes us think that someone at higher rank, that is president Mustafa Kemal [Atatürk], personally intervened in the matter.” Atatürk was determined to modernize Turkey. By 1945 Turkey had saved over 190 intellectuals. Initially, the majority were saved from Germany, then from Austria after its 1938 takeover by Germany, and again from Czechoslovakia after the 1939 Nazi invasion of Prague. Because of Turkey’s neutrality and influence at least one needed professional, dentistry professor Alfred Kantorowicz,[[1]] was liberated from a nine month incarceration in a concentration camp and allowed to proceed with his family to Istanbul.

There is little doubt that Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, Turkey's founder and first president, was personally involved with the emigre professors. Atatürk was in the midst of a major reform effort to modernize his new republic and saw this as an opportunity to encourage intellectual growth. Soon after the arrival of the first party he was known to have hosted a reception/banquet for them in the Dolmabahçe Palace . When the Shah of Iran visited Turkey for the first time, Atatürk personally arranged for Alfred Kantorowicz to create a set of dentures for him and for Ophtalmologist Joseph Igersheimer[3] to give the Shah an eye examination and prescribe new lenses.13. http://en.citizendium.org/wiki/Alfred_Kantorowicz


“What made Einstein the man of this century was not just his mind, it was also his soul”


Resources

  • http://www.thewjc.org/sermons/einstein.htm Viewed September 3, 2007, Reisman, A. (2007) “Jewish Refugees from Nazism, Albert Einstein, and the Modernization of Higher Education in Turkey (1933-1945).” Aleph: Historical Studies in Science & Judaism, No. 7, Pages 253-281. http://inscribe.iupress.org/doi/abs/10.2979/ALE.2007.-.7. pgs 253-281
  • Reisman, A. “German Jewish Intellectuals’ Diaspora in Turkey: (1933-1955).” The Historian. Volume 69 issue 3 Page 450-478, Fall 2007
  • Reisman, A. (2007) “Harvard: Albert Einstein’s Disappointment.” History News Network. 01-22-07 http://hnn.us/articles/32682.html, “Einstein worked feverishly to rescue kin, friends, kin of friends and even strangers from the maw of Hitler’s Germany. He personally vouched for dozens, establishing in their names as many $2,000 bank accounts (required by immigration authorities) as he could afford. When tapped out, he beseeched friends and colleagues to put up funds, guaranteeing the deposits himself.” http://www.momentmag.com/Exclusive/2007/2007-04/200704-Einstein.html Viewed September 2, 2007
  • There is some discrepancy as to who originally found this letter in the Foreign Ministry archives. For a discussion of that see, Reisman, A. (2006) What a Freshly Discovered Einstein Letter Says About Turkey Today, History News Network, 11-20-06, http://hnn.us/articles/31946.html
  • This letter has been circulating within Turkey via the web for some time prior to its publication by the Hürriyet. This author received at least five e-mails from Turkish friends with the letter attached starting early October 2006.

“Teklifin mevzuatı kanuniyeyle telifi mümkün değildir.” “Bunları bugünkü şeriata göre kabule imkan yoktur.” Murat Bardakçı, “A REQUEST FROM THE GREAT GENIUS TO THE YOUNG REPUBLIC” Hürriyet, 29 October 2006. A banner first page headline article in a high-circulation broadsheet Turkish daily newspaper. The first group of invitees in 1933 numbered 30. It later grew to over 190 intellectuals and with families and staff the totaled over 1000 of saved individuals. For a complete listing of the individual intellectuals see Reisman, Turkey's Modernization: Refugees from Nazism and Atatürk's Vision. (Washington DC: New Academia Publishers, 2006) pp 474-478

  • According to Istanbul University’s historian of science Prof. Feza Günergün (Cumhuriyet, Science and Technology Supplement, Nov. 3, 2006, Year: 20, Number: 10240) Einstein’s letter of September 17, 1933 was preceded by the July 6, 1933 agreement between the Turkish government and the “Notgemeinschaft” organization, (to be discussed later) at which time contracts for 30 German scientists had already been issued. Günergün suggested that by his letter “perhaps encouraged by this agreement Einstein made an attempt to send another 40 to Turkey.”

The author thanks Ms Barbara Wolff of the Einstein Archives at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem for her learned and helpful advice on this matter. Personal communication.

  • Rifat Bali, a Turkish historian discovered this document in the Turkish State Archives during November 2006.

See A. Reisman, Turkey's Modernization 190[2]. Some of the Emigres served as conduits of communication between colleagues, friends, and relatives left behind and others in the free world. It is a great fortune from a historical perspective that some of this correspondence was preserved for posterity. See Reisman, Arnold, German Jewish Intellectuals’ Diaspora in Turkey: (1933-1955). The Historian Vol. 69 no. 3 pages 450-478, Fall.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Einstein was not in Paris on the day the letter was written, but it is apparent that he was making the request in his capacity of Honorary President of the OSE.
  2. ↑ Einstein A, Letter to Ismet İnönü Prime Minister of Turkey, Archives of Turkey's Prime-Ministry Office, September 17, 1933.
  3. ↑ Namal, A. and Reisman, A. "JOSEPH IGERSHEIMER (1879-1965) A visionary ophthalmologist and his contributions before and after exile" Journal of Medical Biography, The Royal Society of Medicine Press. Volume 15 November (2007) pgs 227-234
Retrieved from "https://citizendium.org/wiki/index.php?title=Turkey_and_refugees_from_Nazis&oldid=991758"