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'''Korean''' ([[South Korea]]: <span style="font-family: Batang, Serif">한국어</span>, ''Han-guk-o''; [[North Korea]]: <span style="font-family: Batang, Serif">조선말</span>, ''Jo-son-mal'') is the [[language (general)|language]] of the two [[Korea]]s and many communities around the world. Korean has about 72 million speakers.<ref>Sohn (1999/2001: 4).</ref>
'''Korean''' ([[South Korea|S. Korea]]: 한국어, Han-guk-au; [[North Korea|N. Korea]]: 조선말, Jo-saun-mal) is a language spoken mainly by the Korean nationality, with its own alphabetic writing system. The language is also one of the two [[official language]]s (the other is [[Mandarin language|Mandarin]]) in neighbouring [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture|Yanbian]], [[People's Republic of China|China]].  Worldwide, there are around 80 million Korean speakers, including large groups in the former [[Soviet Union]], China, [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[United States]], [[Canada]], [[Brazil]], [[Japan]], and more recently, [[South Africa]] and the [[Philippines]].
 
Korean's relationship to other languages is yet to be precisely determined. Studies of [[vocabulary]] and [[grammar]] have tried to link the language to the [[Altaic languages]], which include [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and various others spread across [[Asia]]. Structural similarities with [[Japanese language|Japanese]] have also been highlighted, though the words and [[pronunciation]] are very different. A link with Japanese persists as a hypothesis partly because the [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and [[Korean people|Korean]] peoples share deep [[culture|cultural]] roots. A final view is that Korean has no relationship to any other surviving language; it is an ''[[language isolate|isolate]]'', with its nearest relatives long-dead.
 
Korean is [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] in its morphology and [[Subject Object Verb|SOV]] in its [[syntax]]. Like [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], Korean has borrowed much vocabulary from [[Chinese language|Chinese]] or created vocabulary on Chinese models.
 
==Names==
The Korean names for the language are based on the [[Names of Korea|names for Korea]] used in North and South Korea.
 
In North Korea and Yanbian in China, the language is most often called ''Chosŏnmal'' ({{lang|ko|조선말}}; with [[Hanja]]:{{lang|ko|朝鮮말}}), or more formally, ''Chosŏnŏ'' ({{lang|ko|조선어}};  {{lang|ko|朝鮮語}}).
 
In South Korea, the language is most often called ''Hangungmal''
<!-- -->
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({{lang|ko|한국말}}; {{lang|ko|韓國말}}), or more formally, ''Hangugeo'' ({{lang|ko|한국어}}; {{lang|ko|韓國語}}) or ''Gugeo'' ({{lang|ko|국어}}; {{lang|ko|國語}}; literally "national language").  It is sometimes colloquially called ''Urimal'' ("our language"; {{lang|ko|우리말}} in one word in South Korea, {{lang|ko|우리 말}} with a space in North Korea).
 
On the other hand, Korean people in the [[Post-Soviet states|former USSR]], who refer to themselves as [[Koryo-saram]] (also ''Goryeoin'' [{{lang|ko|고려인}}; {{lang|ko|高麗人}}; literally, "[[Names of Korea#Historic Names|Goryeo]] person(s)"]) call the language ''[[Goryeomal]]'' ({{lang|ko|고려말}}; {{lang|ko|高麗말}}).
 
==Classification==
The classification of the modern Korean language is uncertain, and due to the lack of any one generally accepted theory, it is sometimes described conservatively as a [[language isolate]].
 
Since the publication of the article of [[Gustaf John Ramstedt|Ramstedt]] in 1926, many linguists support the hypothesis that Korean can be classified as an [[Altaic languages|Altaic]] language, or as a relative of proto-Altaic. Korean is similar to Altaic languages in that they both lack certain grammatical elements, including [[grammatical number|number]], [[Grammatical gender|gender]], [[Article (grammar)|articles]], fusional morphology, voice, and [[relative pronoun]]s (Kim Namkil). Korean especially bears some [[morphology (linguistics)|morphological]] resemblance to some languages of the Eastern Turkic group, namely [[Sakha language|Sakha (Yakut)]]. Vinokurova, a scholar of the Sakha language, noted that like in Korean, and unlike in other Turkic languages or a variety of other languages surveyed, adverbs in Sakha are derived from verbs with the help of derivational morphology; however, she did not suggest this implied any relation between the two languages.<ref>{{cite paper|title=The Typology of Adverbial Agreement|url=http://mercury.hau.ac.kr/kggc/Monthly/ReadingMaterial/Typology.doc|author=Vinokurova, Nadya|date=1999-04-08|accessdate=2007-01-15|format=Microsoft Word}}</ref>
 
It is also considered likely that Korean is related in some way to [[Japanese language|Japanese]], since the two languages have a similar grammatical structure.  Genetic relationships have been postulated both directly and indirectly, the latter through either placing both languages in the Altaic family, or by arguing for a relationship between Japanese and the [[Buyeo languages]] of [[Goguryeo language|Goguryeo]] and [[Baekje]] (see below); the proposed Baekje relationship is supported additionally by [[phonology|phonological]] similarities such as the general lack of consonant-final sounds, and by cognates such as Baekje ''mir'', Japanese ''mi-'' "three". Furthermore, there are known cultural links between Baekje and Japan, it even being likely that the Baekje upper classes fled to Japan when the kingdom fell.  Census records from early Japan show that most Japanese aristocratic clans traced their lineage to the Korean peninsula.  A fact confirmed by the current Japanese Emperor in a speech marking his 68th birthday when he stated, "I, on my part, feel a certain kinship with Korea, given the fact that it is recorded in the Chronicles of Japan that the mother of Emperor Kammu was of the line of King Muryong of Paekche," and "I believe it was fortunate to see such culture and skills transmitted from Korea to Japan." [http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,,625427,00.html]
 
Others argue, however, that the similarities are not due to any genetic relationship, but rather to a ''[[sprachbund]]'' effect.  See [[East Asian languages#Morphology|East Asian languages]] for morphological features shared among languages of the East Asian ''sprachbund'', and [[Japanese language classification]] for further details on the possible relationship.
 
Of the ancient languages attested in the Korean Peninsula, modern Korean is believed to be a descendent of the languages of [[Samhan]] and [[Silla]]; it is unknown whether these are related to the Buyeo languages, though many Korean scholars believe they were mutually intelligible, and the collective basis of what in the [[Goryeo]] period would merge to become Middle Korean (the language before the changes that the [[Hideyoshi's invasions of Korea|Seven-Year War]] brought) and eventually Modern Korean. The [[Jeju dialect]] preserves some archaic features that can also be found in Middle Korean, whose ''arae a'' is retained in the dialect as a distinct vowel.
 
There are also fringe theories proposing various other relationships; for example, a few linguists such as Homer B. Hulbert have also tried to relate Korean to the [[Dravidian languages]] through the similar syntax in both.
 
==Dialects==
{{main|Korean dialects}}
[[Image:Koreandialects.PNG|thumb|180px|Dialects of Korean]]
Korean has several [[dialect]]s (called ''mal'' [literally "speech"], ''bang-eon'', or ''saturi'' in Korean). The [[standard language]] (''pyojuneo'' or ''pyojunmal'') of South Korea is based on the dialect of the area around [[Seoul]], and the standard for North Korea is based on the dialect spoken around [[Pyongyang|P'yŏngyang]]. These dialects are similar, and are in fact all mutually intelligible, except the dialect of [[Jeju]] Island (see [[Jeju Dialect]]). The dialect spoken in [[Jeju Dialect|Jeju]] is classified as a different language by some Korean linguists. One of the most notable differences between dialects is the use of stress: speakers of [[Seoul dialect]] use stress very little, and standard South Korean has a very flat intonation; on the other hand, speakers of [[Gyeongsang dialect]] have a very pronounced intonation.
 
It is also worth noting that there is substantial evidence for a history of extensive [[dialect levelling]], or even [[convergent evolution]] or intermixture of two or more originally distinct linguistic stocks, within the Korean language and its dialects. Many Korean dialects have basic vocabulary that is etymologically distinct from vocabulary of identical meaning in Standard Korean or other dialects, such as South Jeolla dialect /kur/ vs. Standard Korean {{IPA|/ip/}} "mouth" or Gyeongsang dialect {{IPA|/ʨʌŋ.gu.ʥi/}} vs. Standard Korean {{IPA|/puːʨʰu/}} "[[garlic chives]]." This suggests that the Korean Peninsula may have at one time been much more linguistically diverse than it is at present.  See also the [[Buyeo languages]] [[hypothesis]].
 
There is a very close connection between the dialects of Korean and the [[regions of Korea]], since the boundaries of both are largely determined by mountains and seas.  Here is a list of traditional dialect names and locations:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! Standard dialect
! Where used
|-  
| [[Seoul dialect|Seoul]]
| [[Seoul]], [[Incheon]], [[Gyeonggi]] ([[South Korea]]); [[Kaesong|Kaesŏng]] ([[North Korea]])
|-
| [[Pyongan dialect|P'yŏngan]]
| [[Pyongyang|P'yŏngyang]], [[Pyongan|P'yŏngan]] region, [[Chagang]] (North Korea)
|-
! Regional dialect
! Where used
|-
| [[Chungcheong dialect|Chungcheong]]
| [[Daejeon]], [[Chungcheong]] region (South Korea)
|-
| [[Gangwon dialect|Gangwon]]
| [[Gangwon-do (South Korea)]]/[[Kangwon-do (North Korea)|Kangwŏn (North Korea)]]
|-
| [[Gyeongsang dialect|Gyeongsang]]
| [[Busan]], [[Daegu]], [[Ulsan]], [[Gyeongsang]] region (South Korea)
|-
| [[Hamgyong dialect|Hamgyŏng]]
| [[Rason|Rasŏn]], [[Hamgyŏng]] region, [[Ryanggang]] (North Korea)
|-
| [[Hwanghae dialect|Hwanghae]]
| [[Hwanghae]] region (North Korea)
|-
| [[Jeju dialect|Jeju]]
| [[Jeju]] Island/Province (South Korea)
|-
| [[Jeolla dialect|Jeolla]]
| [[Gwangju]], [[Jeolla]] region (South Korea)
|}
 
==Sounds==
{{IPA notice}}
 
===Consonants===
[[Image:Korean consonants.jpg|thumb|right|220px|The Korean consonants]]
{| class="wikitable"
<!-- Heading row -->
! colspan="2" |
![[Bilabial]]
![[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
![[Postalveolar]]
![[Velar]]
![[Glottal]]
|-  <!-- Stops -->
! ROWSPAN="3"|[[Plosive]]s and<br/>[[affricate]]s
!plain
| ㅂ {{IPA|p}}
| ㄷ {{IPA|t}}
| ㅈ {{IPA|ʨ}}
| ㄱ {{IPA|k}}
| 
|-
! tense
| ㅃ {{IPA|p͈}}
| ㄸ {{IPA|t͈}}
| ㅉ {{IPA|ʨ͈}}
| ㄲ {{IPA|k͈}}
| 
|-
! aspirate
| ㅍ {{IPA|pʰ}}
| ㅌ {{IPA|tʰ}}
| ㅊ {{IPA|ʨʰ}}
| ㅋ {{IPA|kʰ}}
| 
|- <!-- Fricatives -->
! ROWSPAN="2"|[[Fricative]]s
! plain
|
| ㅅ {{IPA|s}}
|
|
| ㅎ {{IPA|h}}
|-
! tense
|
| ㅆ {{IPA|s͈}}
|
|
|
|- <!-- Nasals -->
! COLSPAN="2"|[[Nasal stop]]s
| ㅁ {{IPA|m}}
| ㄴ {{IPA|n}}
|
| ㅇ {{IPA|ŋ}}
|
|- <!-- Liquid/Rhotic -->
! COLSPAN="2"|[[Flap consonant]]
|
| ㄹ {{IPA|ɾ}}
|
|
|}
 
Example words for consonants:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! phoneme !! IPA !! Romanized !! English
|-
| ㅂ {{IPA|p}} || {{IPA|[pal]}} || ''bal'' || 'foot'
|-
| ㅃ {{IPA|p͈}} || {{IPA|[p͈alda]}} || ''ppalda'' || 'to suck'
|-
| ㅍ {{IPA|pʰ}} || {{IPA|[pʰal]}} || ''pal'' || 'arm'
|-
| ㅁ {{IPA|m}} || {{IPA|[mal]}} || ''mal'' || 'horse'
|-
| ㄷ {{IPA|t}} || {{IPA|[tal]}} || ''dal'' || 'moon'
|-
| ㄸ {{IPA|t͈}} || {{IPA|[t͈al]}} || ''ttal'' || 'daughter'
|-
| ㅌ {{IPA|tʰ}} || {{IPA|[tʰada]}} || ''tada'' || 'to ride'
|-
| ㄴ {{IPA|n}} || {{IPA|[nal]}} || ''nal'' || 'day'
|-
| ㅈ {{IPA|ʨ}} || {{IPA|[ʨal]}} || ''jal'' || 'well'
|-
| ㅉ {{IPA|ʨ͈}} || {{IPA|[ʨ͈ada]}} || ''jjada'' || 'to squeeze; to be salty;'
|-
| ㅊ {{IPA|ʨʰ}} || {{IPA|[ʨʰada]}} || ''chada'' || 'to kick'
|-
| ㄱ {{IPA|k}} || {{IPA|[kada]}} || ''gada'' || 'to go'
|-
| ㄲ {{IPA|k͈}} || {{IPA|[k͈alda]}} || ''kkalda'' || 'to spread; to lay out'
|-
| ㅋ {{IPA|kʰ}} || {{IPA|[kʰal]}} || ''kal'' || 'knife'
|-
| ㅇ {{IPA|ŋ}} || {{IPA|[paŋ]}} || ''bang'' || 'room'
|-
| ㅅ {{IPA|s}} || {{IPA|[sal]}} || ''sal'' || 'flesh'
|-
| ㅆ {{IPA|s͈}} || {{IPA|[s͈al]}} || ''ssal'' || 'uncooked grains of rice'
|-
| ㄹ {{IPA|l}} || {{IPA|[paɾam]}} || ''baram'' || 'wind'
|-
| ㅎ {{IPA|h}} || {{IPA|[hada]}} || ''hada'' || 'to do'
|}
 
The [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] symbol <{{IPA|͈}}> (a subscript double straight quotation mark) is used to denote the tensed consonants {{IPA|/p͈, t͈, k͈͈, ʨ͈, s͈/}}. Its official use in the [[Extended IPA]] is for [[fortis|'strong']] articulation, but is used in the literature for [[faucalized voice]]. The Korean consonants also have elements of [[stiff voice]], but it is not yet known how typical this is of faucalized consonants. They are produced with a partially constricted [[glottis]] and additional subglottal pressure in addition to tense vocal tract walls, laryngeal lowering, or other expansion of the larynx.
 
Sometimes the tense consonants are indicated with the apostrophe-like symbol <{{IPA|ʼ}}>, but this is inappropriate, as IPA <{{IPA|ʼ}}> represents the [[ejective]] consonants, with their piston-like upward glottal movement and non-pulmonic air pressure, which the Korean tense consonants do not share.
 
===Vowels===
{| style="clear: both"
| valign="middle" | [[Image:Korean short vowel chart.png|The short vowel phonemes of Korean]]
| valign="middle" | [[Image:Korean long vowel chart.png|The long vowel phonemes of Korean]]
| valign="bottom" | [[Image:Korean vowels.jpg|thumb|220px|The Korean vowels]]
|}
 
===Monophthongs===
Korean has 8 different vowel qualities and a length distinction. Two more vowels, the close-mid front rounded vowel {{IPA|/ø/}} and the close front rounded vowel {{IPA|/y/}}, can still be heard in the speech of some older speakers, but they have been largely replaced by the diphthongs {{IPA|[we]}} and {{IPA|[wi]}} respectively. In a 2003 survey of 350 speakers from Seoul, nearly 90% pronounced the vowel 'ㅟ' as {{IPA|[wi]}}. Length distinction is almost completely lost; length distinction for all vowels can still be heard from older speakers, but almost all younger speakers either do not distinguish length consistently or do not distinguish it at all. The distinction between {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ɛ/}} is another decreasing element in the speech of some younger speakers, mostly in the area of Seoul, whereas in other dialectal areas the two vowels can be distinctly heard. For those speakers who do not make the difference {{IPA|[e]}} seems to be the dominant form. Long {{IPA|/ʌː/}} is actually {{IPA|[əː]}} for most speakers.
 
{| cellpadding="2"
|-
|{{IPA|i}} || {{IPA|[ɕiˈʥaŋ]}} || ''sijang'' (시장) || 'hunger' || {{IPA|iː}} || {{IPA|[ˈɕiːʥaŋ]}} || ''sijang'' || 'market'
|-
|{{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|[peˈɡɛ]}} || ''begae'' (베개) || 'pillow' || {{IPA|eː}} || {{IPA|[ˈpeːda]}} || ''beda'' || 'cut'
|-
|{{IPA|ɛ}} || {{IPA|[tʰɛˈjaŋ]}} || ''taeyang'' (태양) || 'sun' || {{IPA|ɛː}} || {{IPA|[ˈtʰɛːdo]}} || ''taedo'' || 'attitude'
|-
|{{IPA|a}} || {{IPA|[ˈmal]}} || ''mal'' (말) || 'horse' || {{IPA|aː}} || {{IPA|[ˈmaːl]}} || ''mal'' || 'speech'
|-
|{{IPA|o}} || {{IPA|[poˈɾi]}} || ''bori'' (보리) || 'barley' || {{IPA|oː}} || {{IPA|[ˈpoːsu]}} || ''bosu'' || 'salary'
|-
|{{IPA|u}} || {{IPA|[kuˈɾi]}} || ''guri'' (구리) || 'copper' || {{IPA|uː}} || {{IPA|[ˈsuːbak]}} || ''subak'' || 'watermelon'
|-
|{{IPA|ʌ}} || {{IPA|[ˈpʌl]}} || ''beol'' (벌) || 'punishment' || {{IPA|əː}} || {{IPA|[ˈpəːl]}} || ''beol'' || 'bee'
|-
|{{IPA|ɯ}} || {{IPA|[ˈəːɾɯn]}} || ''eoreun'' (어른) || 'seniors' || {{IPA|ɯː}} || {{IPA|[ˈɯːmɕik]}} || ''eumsik'' || 'food'
|}
 
===Diphthongs and glides===
{{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}} are considered to be components of diphthongs rather than separate consonant phonemes.
 
{| cellpadding="2"
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{IPA|wi}}
| {{IPA|[twi]}}
| ''dwi''
| 'back'
| {{IPA|ɯi}}
| {{IPA|[ˈɯisa]}}
| ''uisa''
| 'doctor'
|-
| {{IPA|je}}
| {{IPA|[ˈjeːsan]}}
| ''yesan''
| 'budget'
| {{IPA|we}}
| {{IPA|[kwe]}}
| ''gwe''
| 'box'
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| {{IPA|jɛ}}
| {{IPA|[ˈjɛːgi]}}
| ''yaegi''
| 'story'
| {{IPA|wɛ}}
| {{IPA|[wɛ]}}
| ''wae''
| 'why'
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| {{IPA|ja}}
| {{IPA|[ˈjaːgu]}}
| ''yagu''
| 'baseball'
| {{IPA|wa}}
| {{IPA|[kwaːˈil]}}
| ''gwail''
| 'fruit'
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| {{IPA|jo}}
| {{IPA|[ˈkjoːsa]}}
| ''gyosa''
| 'teacher'
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| {{IPA|ju}}
| {{IPA|[juˈɾi]}}
| ''yuri''
| 'glass'
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
| {{IPA|jə}}
| {{IPA|[jəːgi]}}
| ''yeogi''
| 'here'
| {{IPA|wʌ}}
| {{IPA|[mwʌ]}}
| ''mwo''
| 'what'
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}
 
Source: ''Handbook of the International Phonetic Association''
 
===Phonology===
{{IPA|/s/}} becomes an [[alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] {{IPA|[ɕ]}} before {{IPA|[j]}} or {{IPA|[i]}} for most speakers (but see [[#Differences in the language between North Korea and South Korea]]). This occurs with the tense fricative and all the affricates as well. At the end of a syllable, /s/ changes to /t/ (Example: beoseot (버섯) 'mushroom').<!-- it's actually much more complicated than this, isn't it?-->
 
{{IPA|/h/}} becomes a [[bilabial consonant|bilabial]] {{IPA|[ɸ]}} before {{IPA|[o]}} or {{IPA|[u]}}<!-- Needs verification -->, a [[palatal consonant|palatal]] {{IPA|[ç]}} before {{IPA|[j]}} or {{IPA|[i]}}, a [[velar consonant|velar]] {{IPA|[x]}} before {{IPA|[ɯ]}}, a voiced {{IPA|[ɦ]}} between voiced sounds, and a {{IPA|[h]}} elsewhere.
 
{{IPA|/p, t, ʨ, k/}} become voiced {{IPA|[b, d, ʥ, g]}} between voiced sounds.
 
{{IPA|/l/}} becomes alveolar flap {{IPA|[ɾ]}} between vowels, {{IPA|[l]}} or {{IPA|[ɭ]}} at the end of a syllable or next to another {{IPA|/l/}}, disappears at the beginning of a word before {{IPA|[j]}} in normal speech, and otherwise becomes {{IPA|[n]}} in normal speech.
 
All [[obstruent]]s (plosives, affricates, fricatives) are [[Unreleased stop|unreleased]] {{IPA|[p̚, t̚, k̚]}} at the end of a word.
 
Plosive stops {{IPA|/p, t, k/}} become nasal stops {{IPA|[m, n, ŋ]}} before nasal stops.
 
Some of these phonetic [[assimilation (linguistics)|assimilation]] rules can be seen in the following:
* {{IPA|/ʨoŋlo/}} is pronounced as {{IPA|[ʨoŋ.no]}}
* {{IPA|/hankukmal/}} as {{IPA|[han.guŋ.mal]}}
 
[[Hangul]] spelling does not reflect these assimilatory pronunciation rules, but rather maintains the underlying [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]].
 
One difference between the pronunciation standards of North and South Korea is the treatment of initial {{IPA|[r]}}, and initial {{IPA|[n]}} before {{IPA|[i]}} or {{IPA|[j]}}. For example,
* "labour" - north: '''''r'''odong'' (로동), south: '''''n'''odong'' (노동)
* "history" - north: '''''ry'''ŏksa'' (력사), south: '''''y'''eoksa'' (역사)
* "female" - north: '''''ny'''ŏja'' (녀자), south: '''''y'''eoja'' (여자)
 
===[[Phonotactics]]===
Korean syllables may not start or end with [[consonant cluster]]s, except in a few cases. Consequently, consonant clusters in Korean are usually limited to clusters of two consonants where two syllables have been joined.
 
Only seven consonant allophones are found at the end of syllables: {{IPA|[p̚, m̚, t̚, n̚, l, k̚]}} and {{IPA|[ŋ̚]}}. Syllable-final stops are all [[Unreleased stop|unreleased]].
 
===Vowel harmony===
{| align="right" class="wikitable" style="margin-left:10px"
|-
|+ '''Korean Vowel Harmony'''
|-
!rowspan=2|Positive/"light"/Yang Vowels
| ㅏ (a) || ㅑ (ya) || ㅗ (o) || ㅛ (yo)
|-
| ㅐ (ae) || ㅘ (wa) || ㅚ (oe) || ㅙ (wae)
|-
!rowspan=2|Negative/"heavy"/Yin Vowels
| ㅓ (eo) || ㅕ (yeo) || ㅜ (u) || ㅠ (yu)
|-
| ㅔ (e) || ㅝ (wo) || ㅟ (wi) || ㅞ (we)
|-
! Neutral/Centre Vowels
| ㅡ (eu) || ㅣ (i)||colspan=2| ㅢ (ui)
|-
|}
Traditionally, the Korean language has had strong [[vowel harmony]]; that is, in pre-modern Korean, as in most Altaic languages, not only did the inflectional and derivational affixes (such as [[postposition]]s) change in accordance to the main root vowel, but native words also adhered to vowel harmony.  It is not as prevalent in modern usage, although it remains strong in [[onomatopoeia]], [[adjective]]s and [[adverb]]s, [[interjections]], and [[Grammatical conjugation|conjugation]]. There are also other traces of vowel harmony in Korean.
 
There are three classes of vowels in Korean: positive, negative, and neutral. The vowel eu is considered partially a neutral and negative vowel. The vowel classes loosely follow the negative and positive vowels; they also follow orthography. Exchanging positive vowels with negative vowels usually creates different nuances of meaning, with positive vowels sounding diminutive and negative vowels sounding crude.
 
Some examples:
 
*'''Onomatopoeia:'''
** 퐁당퐁당 (pongdangpongdang) and 풍덩풍덩 (pungdeongpungdeong), light and heavy water splashing
*'''Emphasised Adjectives:'''
** 노랗다 (norata) means plain yellow, while its negative, 누렇다 (nureota) means very yellow
** 파랗다 (parata) means plain blue, while its negative, 퍼렇다 (peoreota) means deep blue
*'''Particles at the end of verbs:'''
** 잡다 (japda) (to catch) → 잡았다 (Jabatda) (caught)
** 접다 (jeopda) (to fold) → 접었다 (Jeobeotda) (folded)
*'''Interjections:'''
** 아이고 (aigo) and 어이구 (eoigu) meaning "oh!"
** 아하 (aha) and 어허 (eoheo) meaning "indeed" and "well" respectively
 
==Grammar==
 
Korean is an [[agglutinative language]]. The basic form of a Korean sentence is Subject-Object-Verb ([[Subject Object Verb|SOV]]), and modifiers precede the modified word. As a side note, a sentence can break the SOV word order, however, it must end with the verb.
The following is an example of contrast between the Korean and English word order.  In English, one would say, "I'm going to the store to buy some food."  But in Korean the sentence would be: *"I food to-buy in-order-to store-to going-am."
 
In Korean, "unnecessary" words (see [[theme and rheme]]) can be left out of a sentence as long as the context makes the meaning clear.
A typical exchange might translate word-for word to the following:
:'''H''': "가게에 가세요?" (''gage-e gaseyo?'')
:'''G''': "네." (''ne.'')
 
:'''H''': *"store-to going?"
:'''G''': "yes."
 
which in English would translate to:
:'''H''': "Going to the store?"
:'''G''': "Yes."
 
Unlike most European languages, Korean does not conjugate verbs using agreement with the subject, and nouns have no gender. Instead, verb conjugations depend upon the verb tense and on the relation between the people speaking.
When talking to or about friends, you would use one conjugate ending, to your parents, another, and to nobility/honoured persons, another.
This loosely echoes the [[T-V distinction]] of most [[Indo-European languages]].
 
== Speech levels and honorifics ==
{{main|Korean honorifics}}
 
The relationship between a speaker or writer and his or her subject and audience is paramount in Korean, and the grammar reflects this. The relationship between speaker/writer and subject referent is reflected in '''[[honorific]]s''', while that between speaker/writer and audience is reflected in '''speech level'''.
 
===Honorifics===
 
When talking about someone superior in status, a speaker or writer usually uses special nouns or verb endings to indicate the subject's superiority. Generally, someone is superior in status if he/she is an older relative, a stranger of roughly equal or greater age, or an employer, teacher, customer, or the like. Someone is equal or inferior in status if he/she is a younger stranger, student, employee or the like. On rare occasions (like when someone wants to pick a fight), a speaker might speak to a superior or stranger in a way normally only used for, say, animals, but it would be foolhardy to do so without first seriously considering the consequences to one's physical safety.
 
===Speech levels===
 
There are no fewer than 7 verb [[paradigm]]s or '''speech levels''' in Korean, and each level has its own unique set of verb endings which are used to indicate the level of formality of a situation. Unlike "honorifics" &mdash; which are used to show respect towards the referent of a subject &mdash; '''speech levels''' are used to show respect towards a speaker's or writer's audience. The names of the 7 levels are derived from the non-honorific [[imperative]] form of the verb 하다 (''hada'', "do") in each level, plus the suffix 체 ('che', [[Hanja]]: <span lang="KO">體</span>), which means "style."
 
The highest 5 levels use final verb endings and are generally grouped together as ''jondaemal'' (존대말), while the lowest 2 levels (해요체 ''haeyoche'' and 해체 ''haeche'') use [[non-final]] endings and are called 반말 (''banmal'', "half-words") in Korean. (The ''haeyoche'' in turn is formed by simply adding the non-final ending -요 (''-yo'') to the ''haeche'' form of the verb.)
 
==Vocabulary==
The core of the Korean vocabulary is made up of native Korean words. More than 50% of the vocabulary (up to 70% by some estimates), however, especially scholarly terminology, are [[Sino-Korean]] words, either
* directly borrowed from [[Chinese written language]], or
* coined in Japan or Korea using [[Chinese characters]].
 
Korean has two [[Korean numerals|number systems]]: one native, and one borrowed from the Chinese.
 
To a much lesser extent, words have also occasionally been borrowed from [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Sanskrit]], and other languages.
Conversely, the Korean language itself has also contributed some loanwords to other languages, most notably the [[Tsushima dialect]] of Japanese.
 
In modern times, many words have been borrowed from [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[European languages|Western languages]] such as [[German language|German]] (''[[wikt:アルバイト|areubaiteu]]'' ‘part-time job’, ''allereugi'' ‘allergy’) and more recently [[English language|English]]. Concerning daily usage vocabulary except what can be written in hanja, more words have possibly been borrowed from English than from any other language. Some Western words were borrowed indirectly via Japanese, taking a Japanese sound pattern, for example ‘dozen’&nbsp;> {{lang|ja-Kana|ダース}} ''dāsu''&nbsp;> {{lang|ko-Hang|다스}} ''daseu''. Most indirect Western borrowings are now written according to current hangulization rules for the respective Western language, as if borrowed directly. There are a few more complicated borrowings such as ‘German(y)’ (see [[Names for Germany#Japanese and Korean|Names for Germany]]), the first part of whose [[Exonym and endonym|endonym]] {{IPA|[ˈd̥ɔɪ̯ʧʷ.la̠ntʰ]}} the Japanese approximated using the [[Kanji]] {{lang|ja-Hant|獨逸}} <!-- kyūjitai, no 独 please --> ''doitsu'' that were then accepted into the Korean language by their Sino-Korean pronunciation: {{lang|ko-Hant|[[wikt:獨|獨]]}}&nbsp;''dok'' + {{lang|ja-Hant|[[wikt:逸|逸]]}}&nbsp;''il'' = ''[[wikt:독일|Dogil]]''. In South Korean official use, a number of other Sino-Korean country names have been replaced with phonetically oriented hangulizations of the countries' endonyms or English names.
 
North Korean vocabulary shows a tendency to prefer native Korean over Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings. By contrast, South Korean may have several Sino-Korean or foreign borrowings which tend to be absent in North Korean.


==Writing system==
==Writing system==
{{main|Hangul}}
Korean is [[writing system|written]] in the unique ''[[Hangeul]]'' [[alphabet]], with some use of [[Chinese characters|Chinese-derived]] ''[[Hanja]]'' characters in South Korea. ''Hangeul'' symbols are [[letter (alphabet)|letters]], representing [[phoneme]]s, but they are arranged into groups of [[syllable]]s, so the [[written language]] incorporates elements of both an alphabet and a [[syllabary]].
{{See also|Hangul consonant and vowel tables}}
In ancient times, the languages of the Korean peninsula were written using [[Chinese character]]s, using [[hyangchal]] or [[idu]]. Knowledge of such systems were lost, and the Korean language was not written at all; the aristocracy wrote [[Classical Chinese]] for their writing.
 
Korean is now mainly written in [[Hangul]], the Korean alphabet, optionally mixing in Hanja to write [[Sino-Korean]] words. South Korea still teaches 1800 Hanja characters to its children, while the North abolished the use of hanja decades ago.
 
Hangul consists of 24 letters &mdash; 14 consonants and 10 vowels that are written in syllabic blocks of 2 to 5 components. Unlike the [[Chinese language|Chinese]] writing system (including [[Japanese language|Japanese]] [[Kanji]]), Hangul is not a [[logogram|logographic]] system.
 
Below is a chart of the Korean alphabet's symbols and their canonical [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] values:
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Consonants'''
|-
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
| {{IPA|p}}
| {{IPA|t}}
| {{IPA|ʨ}}
| {{IPA|k}}
| {{IPA|p͈}}
| {{IPA|t͈}}
| {{IPA|ʨ͈}}
| {{IPA|k͈}}
| {{IPA|pʰ}}
| {{IPA|tʰ}}
| {{IPA|ʨʰ}}
| {{IPA|kʰ}}
| {{IPA|s}}
| {{IPA|h}}
| {{IPA|s͈}}
| {{IPA|m}}
| {{IPA|n}}
| {{IPA|ŋ}}
| {{IPA|w}}
| {{IPA|r}}
| {{IPA|j}}
|-
! [[Hangul]]
| ㅂ
| ㄷ
| ㅈ
| ㄱ
| ㅃ
| ㄸ
| ㅉ
| ㄲ
| ㅍ
| ㅌ
| ㅊ
| ㅋ
| ㅅ
| ㅎ
| ㅆ
| ㅁ
| ㄴ
| ㅇ
| &nbsp;
| ㄹ
| &nbsp;
|}
 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ '''Vowels'''
|-
! [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
| {{IPA|i}}
| {{IPA|e}}
| {{IPA|ɛ}}
| {{IPA|a}}
| {{IPA|o}}
| {{IPA|u}}
| {{IPA|ʌ}}
| {{IPA|ɯ}}
| {{IPA|ɰi}}
| {{IPA|je}}
| {{IPA|jɛ}}
| {{IPA|ja}}
| {{IPA|jo}}
| {{IPA|ju}}
| {{IPA|jʌ}}
| {{IPA|wi}}
| {{IPA|we}}
| {{IPA|wɛ}}
| {{IPA|wa}}
| {{IPA|wʌ}}
|-
! [[Hangul]]
| ㅣ
| ㅔ
| ㅐ
| ㅏ
| ㅗ
| ㅜ
| ㅓ
| ㅡ
| ㅢ
| ㅖ
| ㅒ
| ㅑ
| ㅛ
| ㅠ
| ㅕ
| ㅟ
| ㅞ
| ㅙ
| ㅘ
| ㅝ
|}
 
Modern Korean is written with [[space (punctuation)|space]]s between [[word]]s, a feature not found in Chinese and Japanese. Korean [[punctuation]] marks are almost identical to Western ones. Traditionally, Korean was written in columns from top to bottom, right to left, but is now usually written in rows from left to right, top to bottom.
 
==Differences between North Korea and South Korea==
{{main|Korean language North-South differences}}
The Korean language used in the North and the South exhibits differences in pronunciation, spelling, grammar and vocabulary.<ref>Kanno, Hiroomi (ed.) / Society for Korean Linguistics in Japan (1987). ''Chōsengo o manabō'' (『朝鮮語を学ぼう』), Sanshūsha, Tokyo. ISBN 4-384-01506-2</ref>
 
===Pronunciation===
In North Korea, [[palatalization]] of {{IPA|/si/}} is optional, and {{IPA|/ʨ/}} can be pronounced as {{IPA|[z]}} in between vowels.
 
Words that are written the same way may be pronounced differently, such as the examples below.  The pronunciations below are given in [[Revised Romanization of Korean|Revised Romanization]], [[McCune-Reischauer]] and Hangul, the last of which represents what the Hangul would be if one writes the word as pronounced.
 
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Word
! rowspan="2" | Meaning
! colspan="4" | Pronunciation
|-
!North (RR/MR)
!North (Hangul)
!South (RR/MR)
!South (Hangul)
|-
|넓다
|wide
|neo'''p'''tta (nŏ'''p'''ta)
|넙따
|neo'''l'''tta (nŏ'''l'''ta)
|널따
|-
|읽고
|to read<br />(continuative form)
|i'''kk'''o (i'''k'''ko)
|익꼬
|i'''l'''kko (i'''l'''ko)
|일꼬
|-
|압록강
|[[Yalu River|Amnok River]]
|am'''r'''okgang (am'''r'''okkang)
|암록강
|am'''n'''okkang (am'''n'''okkang)
|암녹깡
|-
|독립
|independence
|dong'''r'''ip (tong'''r'''ip)
|동립
|dong'''n'''ip (tong'''n'''ip)
|동닙
|-
|관념
|idea / sense / conception
|gwa'''ll'''yeom (kwa'''ll'''yŏm)
|괄렴
|gwa'''nn'''yeom (kwa'''nn'''yŏm)
|관념
|-
|혁신적*
|innovative
|hyeoksinjeok (hyŏksin'''ch'''ŏk)
|혁씬쩍
|hyeoksinjeok (hyŏksin'''j'''ŏk)
|혁씬적
|}
 
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Similar pronunciation is used in the North whenever the hanja "的" is attached to a Sino-Korean word ending in ㄴ, ㅁ or ㅇ. (In the South, this rule only applies when it is attached to any single-character Sino-Korean word.)
 
===Spelling===
Some words are spelt differently by the North and the South, but the pronunciations are the same.
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="2" | Word spelling
!rowspan="2" | Meaning
!rowspan="2" | Pronunciation (RR/MR)
!rowspan="2" | Remarks
|-
!North
!South
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|해빛}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|햇빛}}
|sunshine
|haetbit (haetpit)
|The "sai siot" ('ㅅ' used for indicating sound change) is almost never written out in the North.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|벗꽃}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|벚꽃}}
|cherry blossom
|beotkkot (pŏtkkot)
|
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|못읽다}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|못 읽다}}
|cannot read
|monnikda (monnikta)
|Spacing.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|한나산}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|한라산}}
|[[Hallasan]]
|hallasan (hallasan)
|When a ㄴ-ㄴ combination is pronounced as ''ll'', the original Hangul spelling is kept in the North, while the Hangul is changed in the South.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|규률}}
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|규율}}
|rules
|gyuyul (kyuyul)
|In words where the original hanja is spelt "렬" or "률" and follows a vowel, the initial ㄹ is not pronounced in the North, making the pronunciation identical with that in the South where the ㄹ is dropped in the spelling.
|}
 
===Spelling and pronunciation===
Some words have different spellings and pronunciations in the North and the South, some of which were given in the "Phonology" section above:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North pronun.
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|력량}}
| ryeongryang (ryŏngryang)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|역량}}
| yeongnyang (yŏngnyang)
| strength
| Korean words originally starting in ''r'' or ''n'' have their ''r'' or ''n'' dropped in the South Korean version if the sound following it is an ''i'' or ''y'' sound.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|로동}}
| rodong (rodong)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|노동}}
| nodong (nodong)
| work
| Korean words originally starting in ''r'' have their ''r'' changed to ''n'' in the South Korean version if the sound following it is a sound other than ''i'' or ''y''.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|원쑤}}
| wonssu (wŏnssu)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|원수}}
| wonsu (wŏnsu)
| enemy
| "Enemy" and "head of state" are homophones in the South. Possibly to avoid referring to [[Kim Il-sung]] / [[Kim Jong-il]] as the enemy, the second syllable of "enemy" is written and pronounced 쑤 in the North.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|라지오}}
| rajio (rajio)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|라디오}}
| radio (radio)
| radio
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|우}}
| u (u)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|위}}
| wi (wi)
| on; above
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|안해}}
| anhae (anhae)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|아내}}
| anae (anae)
| wife
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|꾸바}}
| kkuba (kkuba)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|쿠바}}
| kuba (k'uba)
| [[Cuba]]
| When transcribing foreign words from languages that do not have contrasts between aspirated and unaspirated stops, North Koreans generally use tensed stops for the unaspirated ones while South Koreans use aspirated stops in both cases.
|-
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KP|페}}
|pe (p'e)
|{{lang|ko-Hang-KR|폐}}
|pye (p'ye),  pe (p'e)
|lungs
|All hanja pronounced as ''pye'' (''p'ye'') or ''pe'' (''p'e'') in the South are pronounced as ''pe'' (''p'e'') in the North. The spelling is also accordingly different.
|}
 
In general, when transcribing place names, North Korea tends to use the pronunciation in the original language more than South Korea, which often uses the pronunciation in English. For example:
 
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2" | Original name
! colspan="2" | North Korea transliteration
! rowspan="2" | English name
! colspan="2" | South Korea transliteration
|-
! Spelling
! Pronunciation
! Spelling
! Pronunciaton
|-
| [[Ulaanbaatar]]
| 울란바따르
| ullanbattareu (ullanbattarŭ)
| Ulan Bator
| 울란바토르
| ullanbatoreu (ullanbat'orŭ)
|-
| København
| 쾨뻰하븐
| koeppenhabeun (k'oeppenhabŭn)
| [[Copenhagen]]
| 코펜하겐
| kopenhagen (k'op'enhagen)
|-
| al-Qāhirah
| 까히라
| kkahira (kkahira)
| [[Cairo]]
| 카이로
| kairo (k'airo)
|}
 
===Grammar===
Some grammatical constructions are also different:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North pronun.
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|되였다}}
| doeyeotda (toeyŏtta)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|되었다}}
| doeeotda (toeŏtta)
| past tense of 되다 (doeda/toeda), "to become"
| All similar grammar forms of verbs or adjectives that end in ㅣ in the stem (i.e. ㅣ, ㅐ, ㅔ, ㅚ, ㅟ and ㅢ) in the North use 여 instead of the South's 어.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|고마와요}}
| gomawayo (komawayo)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|고마워요}}
| gomawoyo (komawŏyo)
| thanks
| ㅂ-irregular verbs in the North use 와 (wa) for all those with a positive ending vowel; this only happens in the South if the verb stem has only one syllable.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|할가요}}
| halgayo (halkayo)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|할까요}}
| halkkayo (halkkayo)
| Shall we do?
| Although the hangul differ, the pronunciations are the same (i.e. with the tensed ㄲ sound).
|}
 
===Vocabulary===
Some vocabulary is different between the North and the South:
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="4" |Word
! rowspan="2" |Meaning
! rowspan="2" |Remarks
|-
! North spelling
! North pronun.
! South spelling
! South pronun.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|문화주택}}
| munhwajutaek (munhwajut'aek)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|아파트}}
| apateu (ap'at'ŭ)
| flat ("apartment")
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|아빠트}} (appateu/appat'ŭ) is also used in the North.
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|조선말}}
| joseonmal (chosŏnmal)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|한국어}}
| han-gugeo(han'gugeo)
| Korean language
|
|-
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|곽밥}}
| gwakbap (kwakpap)
| {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|도시락}}
| dosirak (tosirak)
| lunch box
|
|}
 
===Others===
In the North, {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|《}} and {{lang|ko-Hang-KP|》}} are the symbols used for quotes; in the South, quotation marks equivalent to the English ones, “ and ”, are standard, although {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|『 』}} and {{lang|ko-Hang-KR|「 」}} are sometimes used in popular novels.
 
==See also==
*[[Hangul]]
*[[Common phrases in different languages#Korean|Common phrases in Korean]]
*[[Korean romanization]]
**[[Revised romanization of Korean]]
**[[McCune-Reischauer]]
**[[Yale Romanization#Korean]]
**[[SKATS]]<!-- It uses the Latin alphabet's letters and represents Korean language, so I guess you could argue it is somehow a romanisation. -->
*[[Korean numerals]]
*[[Korean count word]]
*[[Korean language and computers]]
*[[List of English words of Korean origin]]
*[[Altaic hypothesis]]
*[[List of Korea-related topics]]
*[[Korean profanity]]
 
==References==
<references />
 
==Bliblography==
*Sohn, H.-M. (1999). The Korean Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*Song, J.J. (2005).The Korean Language: Structure, Use and Context. London: Routledge.


==External links==
==Language family==
Korean's relationship to other languages is yet to be precisely determined. Studies of [[vocabulary]] and [[grammar]] have tried to link it to the [[Altaic languages]], a [[language family|family]] which include [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and various others across [[Asia]]. Structural similarities with [[Japanese language|Japanese]] have also been highlighted, though the words and [[phonology|sound system]] are very different. A link with Japanese persists as a hypothesis partly because the [[Japanese people|Japanese]] and [[Korean people|Korean]] peoples share deep [[culture|cultural]] roots. A final view is that Korean has no relationship to any other surviving language; it is an ''[[language isolate|isolate]]'', with its nearest relatives long-dead.


* [http://www.korea.net/korea/kor_loca.asp?code=A020301 Korean language overview]
==Footnotes==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=kor Ethnologue report for Korean]
{{reflist|2}}[[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]
* [http://www.interedu.go.kr/indexe.html Ministry of Education's KOSNET]
* [http://www.mct.go.kr/hangeul/ ''KOREAN through ENGLISH'' at Ministry of Culture and Tourism]
* [http://www.muturzikin.com/cartesasie/6.htm Linguistic map of Korea]
* [http://wiki.galbijim.com/Comparison_of_South_and_North_Korean_vocabulary Comparison of South and North Korean vocabulary]
* [http://www.learn-korean.net Beginners Guide]
* [http://www.rki.kbs.co.kr/learn_korean/lessons/e_index.htm Korean Language Guide]

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This editable Main Article is under development and subject to a disclaimer.

Korean (South Korea: 한국어, Han-guk-o; North Korea: 조선말, Jo-son-mal) is the language of the two Koreas and many communities around the world. Korean has about 72 million speakers.[1]

Writing system

Korean is written in the unique Hangeul alphabet, with some use of Chinese-derived Hanja characters in South Korea. Hangeul symbols are letters, representing phonemes, but they are arranged into groups of syllables, so the written language incorporates elements of both an alphabet and a syllabary.

Language family

Korean's relationship to other languages is yet to be precisely determined. Studies of vocabulary and grammar have tried to link it to the Altaic languages, a family which include Turkish and various others across Asia. Structural similarities with Japanese have also been highlighted, though the words and sound system are very different. A link with Japanese persists as a hypothesis partly because the Japanese and Korean peoples share deep cultural roots. A final view is that Korean has no relationship to any other surviving language; it is an isolate, with its nearest relatives long-dead.

Footnotes

  1. ↑ Sohn (1999/2001: 4).
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