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[[Image:dust-box.jpg|200px|right|thumb|''Dust box'' is Japanese English for what many English speakers might call a ''waste bin'' or a ''trash can''. The expression does not appear in [[Japanese language|Japanese]] itself, which prefers 塵箱 ''gomibako''.<ref>''about.com'': '[http://japanese.about.com/library/blpod071300.htm Japanese phrase of the day (useful Japanese phrases) - Gomi o dasu].' ごみを出す ''Gomi o dasu'' means 'take out the rubbish/garbage'.</ref>]]
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'''Japanese English''' (JE) refers to the forms of [[English language|English]] mainly used by non-[[native speaker]]s in [[Japan]]. This may include English learned as a [[language learning|foreign language]], its fashionable use in the [[media]] and [[advertising]] (often called ''Engrish'' to mimic how Japanese-speakers non-fluent in English may pronounce "English"), or the use of English as a working language in certain institutions, such as research centres or publications like the ''Japan Times''.
[[Image:Marines-poo-diving-shop-japan.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Japanese [[English language|English]] trade names may cause some amusement for those accustomed to other meanings.]]
'''Japanese English''' (JE) refers to the varieties of [[English language|English]] mainly used by non-[[native speaker]]s whose first language is [[Japanese language|Japanese]], usually in [[Japan]]. This may include English learned as a [[language learning|foreign language]], its fashionable use in the [[media]] and [[advertising]] (often disparagingly called 'Engrish' to mimic how Japanese-speakers non-fluent in English may pronounce 'English'), or the use of English as a working language in certain institutions such as research centres or publications like the ''[[Japan Times]]''.


When used for a communicative purpose, such as in English-language newspapers, this variety is typically very similar to [[American English]] in vocabulary, grammar and spelling. However, there are a number of words used in JE, which either originate in Japan or have developed a separate meaning: for example, ''prefecture'' does not refer to a political district in native English-speaking nations. ''[[Police box]]'' is always used as the translation for 交番 ''[[kouban]]'', but in fact this is a local police station, rather than a callbox specifically for contacting the [[police]], as in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Additionally, many English words exist in [[Japanese language|Japanese]], but these [[loanword]]s are considered part of its vocabulary, just as many Japanese words such as ''karate'' form part of English.
When used for a communicative purpose, such as in English-language [[newspaper]]s, this variety is typically very similar to [[American English]] in [[vocabulary]], [[grammar]] and [[spelling]]. However, there are a number of words used in JE which either originate in Japan or have developed a separate meaning: for example, ''prefecture'' does not refer to a political district in native English-speaking nations. ''[[Police box]]'' is used as the translation for 交番 ''[[kooban]]'', but in fact this is a local police station, rather than a callbox specifically for contacting the [[police]], as in the [[United Kingdom|UK]]. Another example is ''dust box'', Japanese English for what many English speakers might call a ''waste bin'' or a ''trash can''. The expression rarely appears in Japanese itself, which prefers 塵箱 ''gomibako''.<ref>''about.com'': '[http://japanese.about.com/library/blpod071300.htm Japanese phrase of the day (useful Japanese phrases) - Gomi o dasu].' ごみを出す ''Gomi o dasu'' means 'take out the rubbish/garbage'.</ref>Additionally, many English words exist in [[Japanese language|Japanese]], but these [[loanword]]s are considered part of its vocabulary, just as many Japanese words such as ''karate'' form part of English.


More commonly, English in Japan takes the form of what is colloquially known as ''Engrish'', a term whose spelling mimics the supposed Japanese inability to articulate the difference between English [r] and [l]. The acceptability of this term is debatable; many Japanese may consider it derogatory, while others may not. It is most widely used by English speakers as a humourous [[slang]] term. Furthermore, it is sometimes used to refer to other versions of English in [[East Asia]], e.g. as spoken by [[Chinese people|Chinese]] or [[Korean people|Korean]] user of English.
An alternative term sometimes applied to JE is ''Japlish''. Since ''Jap'' is [[racism|racist]] English [[slang]] for a [[Japanese people|Japanese person]], many authors may avoid this term. Alternatively, it has been used to refer to a special set of English loanwords in Japanese itself (和製英語 ''wasei-eigo'' - literally 'made-in-Japan English') - words not used in a way that English speakers would readily understand.<ref>For example, in Murray (1999), which includes a section on ''wasei-eigo''. One example of this is ''desuku'' (デスク) from English ''desk'', which is actually a title for a [[journalism|journalist]]. In Japanese, job titles can be used as forms of address, with the [[honorific]] ''-san'' (-さん). It is therefore acceptable to refer to a journalist, for example, as ''desuku-san'' (literally 'Mr Desk'). These words are subject to Japanese grammar just as a native item would be; e.g. they can form compounds with Japanese words, and the meaning may differ, as in ''famikon'' (ファミコン) 'family computer', meaning 'games console'. ''Wasei-eigo'' words are usually written in ''[[katakana]]'', though occasionally other scripts may be used, as in ''purinto kurabu'' (プリント倶楽部) - i.e. 'print club' (a special kind of [[photo booth]]), the full form of ''[[Japanese popular culture#Purikura|purikura]]'' (プリクラ).</ref>
 
An alternative term sometimes applied to JE is ''Japlish''. Since ''Jap'' is [[racism|racist]] English [[slang]] for a [[Japanese people|Japanese person]], many authors may avoid this term. Alternatively, it has been used to refer to English loanwords in Japanese itself (和製英語 ''wasei-eigo'' - literally 'made in Japan English') - words not used in a way that English speakers would readily understand.<ref>For example, in Murray (1999), which includes a section on ''wasei-eigo''. One example of this is ''desuku'' (デスク) from English ''desk'', which is actually a title for a [[journalism|journalist]]. In Japanese, job titles can be used as forms of address, with the [[honorific]] ''-san'' (-さん). It is therefore acceptable to refer to a journalist, for example, as ''desuku-san'' (literally 'Mr Desk'). These words are subject to Japanese grammar just as a native item would be; e.g. they can form compounds with Japanese words, and the meaning may differ, as in ''famikon'' (ファミコン) 'family computer', meaning 'games console'.</ref>
 
==Origin of the term 'Engrish'==
[[Image:marines-poo-diving-shop-japan.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Japanese English trade names may cause some amusement for those accustomed to other meanings.]]
The term originates from the fact that Japanese and a few other East Asian languages do not distinguish the [[phoneme]]s /r/ and /l/ as in English - thus it could be described as an [[Anglocentric]] reference, identifying a difference as a deficiency relative to English. Writers attempting to render JE on paper tend to either eliminate the [[grapheme|letter]] ''l'' and replace it with ''r'', or else mix them randomly, producing such words as ''rice'' for ''lice''. Furthermore, Japanese users of English sometimes mix up the two, leading to mis-spellings in English.
 
Japanese has an /r/ phoneme which is [[phonetics|phonetically]] often similar to the pronunciation of ''t'' or ''d'' in American English, where these occur before an unstressed [[syllable]]: e.g. ''city'' or ''butter''. This sound is known to phoneticians as a [[flap]] and transcribed as [ɾ] but is only one of several variants of ''r'' found in Japanese. Another is the similar alveolar lateral flap [ɺ]. Some speakers will also pronounce it as a [d] in word-initial position, and some forms may be perceived by English speakers as an [l]. The confusion arises because ''phonetically'' the Japanese /r/ is articulated similar to the prounciation of English [l], but ''[[phonology|phonologically]]'' serves as an /r/. Therefore, misinterpretations involving /r/ and /l/ may be as much due to listeners' misperceptions as speakers' approximations.


==English language learning in Japan==
==English language learning in Japan==
English is a compulsory subject in Japanese schools from the age of 11; students who enter university are also obliged to take an English course in their first year, assessed through the [[TOEIC]] exam.<ref>Students tested in the ''Teaching of English for International Communication'' exam are assessed in listening and reading comprehension, each carrying 50% of the final mark.</ref> However, although the [[Government of Japan|Japanese government]] has issued guidelines requiring a focus on real-life communication skills,<ref>Sakui & Gaies (1999: 488).</ref> most teaching is still very 'traditional': a focus on learning [[grammar]] rules and on reading the language,<ref>Sakui (2004: 156-157).</ref> with Japanese as the medium of instruction used by almost exclusively Japanese native-speaking teachers. This means that exposure to native English can be limited for many learners, who may have few opportunities to practice listening and speaking.<ref>Many prospective students also attend 学習 ''[[juku]]'' (cram schools) in the evenings to study English. Teachers in these schools are often undergraduate students.</ref>
English is a compulsory subject in Japanese schools from the age of 11; students who enter university are also obliged to take an English course in their first year, assessed through the [[TOEIC]] exam.<ref>Students tested in the ''Teaching of English for International Communication'' exam are assessed in listening and reading comprehension, each carrying 50% of the final mark.</ref> However, although the [[Government of Japan|Japanese government]] has issued guidelines requiring a focus on real-life communication skills,<ref>Sakui & Gaies (1999: 488).</ref> most teaching is still very 'traditional': a focus on learning [[grammar]] rules and on reading the language,<ref>Sakui (2004: 156-157).</ref> with Japanese as the medium of instruction used by almost exclusively Japanese native-speaking teachers. This means that exposure to native English can be limited for many learners, who may have few opportunities to practice listening and speaking.<ref>Many prospective students also attend 学習 ''[[juku]]'' (cram schools) in the evenings to study English. Teachers in these schools are often undergraduate students.</ref>


==Intentional 'Engrish'==
==Loanwords==
'Engrish' is usually accidental, but sometimes its use is deliberate. [[Foreign branding]], for example, serves the same purpose it does in the West: [[exotic]] [[embellishment]]. For the same reasons that a [[Chinese character]] or a Japanese [[Kanji]] tattoo seems "exotic" to many in the West, Asians may appreciate English words or gibberish for its aesthetic appeal alone; straight lines, frequent symmetry, and the unembellished curves of Latinate letters may all appeal to Asian senses of aesthetics and balance.
[[Image:Japanese-parking-ticket-machine.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Parking ticket machine in [[Osaka]], [[Japan]]. Above the English version is [[katakana]] - パーキング・チケット ''paakingu chiketto'', the ''wasei-eigo'' term.<ref>''Parking ticket'' in [[British English]] usually means a notice of illegal parking handed down by a traffic warden; the term ''parking meter ticket'' or ''pay and display'' ticket would be used in reference to a parking meter machine.</ref>]]
While ''wasei-eigo'' comprises English-like Japanese words and phrases invented in Japan, there are also many more recognisably English [[loanword]]s in Japanese, though the pronunciation has usually changed considerably. For example, as Japanese has five [[vowel]]s compared to the twenty-plus of many native English varieties, these sounds will systematically change: for example, the English vowel in 'bird' emerges as [a:] in Japanese: 'bird' becomes バード ''baado'' - which is also how 'bard' is pronounced when borrowed into Japanese.<ref>Usually for a 'bard' character in a [[role-playing game]].</ref>


==''Wasei-eigo''==
Lexical borrowing is not an attempt at learning another language, but negative attitudes to it can nevertheless arise. For some English speakers, the systematic and entirely usual practice of adopting words from other languages leads to some amusement, generally because of the pronunciation or perceived 'misuse' of English. This in turn leads to such Japanese words being labelled 'Engrish', even though they form part of Japanese rather than Japanese English. Japanese English speakers may, however, use them when speaking English - effectively double-borrowing them from English to Japanese, and from Japanese to Japanese English.
[[Image:Japanese-parking-ticket-machine.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Parking ticket machine in [[Osaka]], [[Japan]]. Above the English version is [[katakana]] - パーキング・チクット ''paakingu chikutto'' - indicating this is a ''wasei-eigo'' term translated from Japanese.<ref>''Parking ticket'' in [[British English]] usually means a notice of illegal parking handed down by a traffic warden; the term ''parking meter ticket'' or ''pay and display'' ticket would be used in reference to a parking meter machine.</ref>]]
Engrish can also refer to the [[Japanese language|Japanese]] pronunciation of English [[loanword]]s or a Japanese dialect with a number of English loanwords. Because Japanese has only five [[vowel]]s, and few [[consonant cluster]]s, English loanwords are often pronounced in a manner that sounds unusual and even humorous to English speakers. For example, in spoken Japanese, guitarist [[Eric Clapton]] becomes エリック・クラプトン ''Erikku Kuraputon'', [[Australia]] becomes オーストラリア ''Ōsutoraria'', and "[[McDonald's]]" becomes マクドナルド ''Makudonarudo'', which is often further abbreviated to マクド ''Makudo'' or マック ''Makku''. Japanese uses over 600 imported English words in common speech, sometimes in abbreviated form. Examples are ハンカチ ''hankachi'' for "handkerchief", フォーク ''fōku'' for "fork", テーブル ''tēburu'' for "table", プロレス ''[[puroresu]]'' for "[[professional wrestling|pro wrestling]]", and so on. The more outlandish and humorous the pronunciation change is, the more likely it is to be considered Engrish.  Even fairly logical English [[loanword]]s in Japanese will often sound foreign and unintelligible to an English speaker, such as the use of チーズ ''chīzu'' for "cheese" when taking a photograph.  These pronunciation changes are linguistically systematic and are completely unrelated to the speaker's intelligence.


Engrish was once a frequent occurrence in consumer electronics product manuals, with phrases such as "to make speed up find up out document", or "Gas is maybe poison is" (for "Gases may be poisonous"), but it is less frequent today. Another source of poor translation is unchecked [[machine translation]], such as that from the [[Babel Fish (website)|Babelfish]] service or [[Google]] Language Tools. Engrish is often created by translating a phrase using the [[Babel Fish (website)|Babelfish]] service or [[Google]] Language Tools to translate something into Japanese, then copying and pasting the Japanese text and translating it back into
=='Engrish' as a term==
English.
English in Japan is often colloquially known as ''Engrish'', a term whose spelling mimics the supposed Japanese inability to [[articulatory phonetics|articulate]] the difference between (usually English) [ɹ] and [l]. The acceptability of this term is debatable; many Japanese may consider it derogatory. Its use is rooted in the observation that Japanese and a few other [[East Asia]]n languages have no /r/-/l/ contrast as English does - this could be described as an [[Anglocentricism|Anglocentric]] reference, identifying a difference as a deficiency relative to English. It is most widely used by English speakers as humorous [[slang]]. Writers attempting to render JE on paper tend to either eliminate the [[letter (alphabet)|letter]] ''l'' and replace it with ''r'', or else mix them randomly, producing such spellings as ''rice'' for ''lice''. Furthermore, Japanese users of English sometimes mix up the two, leading to mis-spellings in English.


===Pop culture===
Japanese does have an /r/ [[phoneme]], which is [[phonetics|phonetically]] often similar to the pronunciation of ''t'' or ''d'' where these occur between vowels and in an unstressed [[syllable]] of North American English, e.g. ''city'' or ''butter''. This sound is known to phoneticians as a [[flap]] and transcribed as [ɾ] but is only one of several variants of ''r'' found in Japanese. Another is the similar alveolar lateral flap [ɺ]. Some speakers will also pronounce it as a [d] in word-initial position, and some forms may be perceived by English speakers as an [l]. The confusion arises because ''phonetically'' the Japanese /r/ is typically articulated similarly to the pronunciation of English [l], but ''[[phonology|phonologically]]'' serves as an /r/. Therefore, misinterpretations involving /r/ and /l/ may be as much due to listeners' misperceptions as speakers' approximations.
Engrish features prominently in [[Japanese pop culture]], as some young Japanese people consider the English language to be highly fashionable. Japanese has assimilated a great deal of vocabulary from the English language, and many popular Japanese songs and television themes feature disjointed phrases in English amongst the mostly Japanese lyrics. Japanese marketing firms helped to create this popularity, and have subsequently created an enormous array of advertisements, products, and clothing marked with English phrases that seem highly amusing or inexplicably bizarre to a native English speaker. These new English terms are generally short-lived, as they are used more fashionably than meaningfully. Many times English is just used in advertising or on products as an attempt to look modern and is not actually an attempt to communicate.
 
===Popular culture===
English is commonplace in [[Japanese popular culture]], such as in song [[lyrics]], and remains highly fashionable. Japanese [[pop music]], or [[J-pop]] (ジェイポップ ''Jei-poppu''), often features songs which mix English words and phrases with Japanese. Shop signs and [[advertising]] frequently include titles or slogans in English, in some cases these are not really intended to be [[communication|communicative]]. English expressions may also appear in ''[[katakana]]'' in advertising or logos. One Japanese company uses the name ザ・100円ショップ ''Za Hyaku-en Shoppu'' 'The Hundred-[[Japanese yen|yen]] Shop',<ref>'100-yen shops' are very common sales outlets in Japan, where a variety of household goods can be bought inexpensively - usually for ¥100.</ref> in which the English [[definite article]] 'the' appears in ''katakana'' - a grammatical word which has no equivalent in Japanese, and is therefore not a loanword. At other outlets, 'the' appears in English.


==Footnotes==
==Footnotes==
<div class="references-2column">
{{reflist|2}}
<references/>
</div>
 
==References==
*Murray G (1999). ''13 Secrets for Speaking Fluent Japanese''. Tokyo: Kodansha. ISBN 4-7700-2302-2.
*Sakui K (2004) 'Wearing two pairs of shoes: language teaching in Japan.' ''ELT Journal'' 58(2): 155-163.
*Sakui K & Gaies SJ (1999) 'Investigating Japanese learners’ beliefs about language learning.' ''System'' 27: 473-492.


==See also==
==See also==
*[[Japanese popular culture]]
*[[Culture of Japan]]
*[[Japanese language]]
*[[Japanese language]]
*[[English language]]
*[[English language]]
*[[Lingua franca]]
*[[Lingua franca]][[Category:Suggestion Bot Tag]]
 
==External links==
*[http://www.engrish.com/ Engrish.com] - many examples of Engrish
*[http://www.innocentenglish.com/ InnocentEnglish.com] — more examples of Engrish
 
[[Category:Linguistics Workgroup]]
[[Category:CZ Live]]

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Japanese English trade names may cause some amusement for those accustomed to other meanings.

Japanese English (JE) refers to the varieties of English mainly used by non-native speakers whose first language is Japanese, usually in Japan. This may include English learned as a foreign language, its fashionable use in the media and advertising (often disparagingly called 'Engrish' to mimic how Japanese-speakers non-fluent in English may pronounce 'English'), or the use of English as a working language in certain institutions such as research centres or publications like the Japan Times.

When used for a communicative purpose, such as in English-language newspapers, this variety is typically very similar to American English in vocabulary, grammar and spelling. However, there are a number of words used in JE which either originate in Japan or have developed a separate meaning: for example, prefecture does not refer to a political district in native English-speaking nations. Police box is used as the translation for 交番 kooban, but in fact this is a local police station, rather than a callbox specifically for contacting the police, as in the UK. Another example is dust box, Japanese English for what many English speakers might call a waste bin or a trash can. The expression rarely appears in Japanese itself, which prefers 塵箱 gomibako.[1]Additionally, many English words exist in Japanese, but these loanwords are considered part of its vocabulary, just as many Japanese words such as karate form part of English.

An alternative term sometimes applied to JE is Japlish. Since Jap is racist English slang for a Japanese person, many authors may avoid this term. Alternatively, it has been used to refer to a special set of English loanwords in Japanese itself (和製英語 wasei-eigo - literally 'made-in-Japan English') - words not used in a way that English speakers would readily understand.[2]

English language learning in Japan

English is a compulsory subject in Japanese schools from the age of 11; students who enter university are also obliged to take an English course in their first year, assessed through the TOEIC exam.[3] However, although the Japanese government has issued guidelines requiring a focus on real-life communication skills,[4] most teaching is still very 'traditional': a focus on learning grammar rules and on reading the language,[5] with Japanese as the medium of instruction used by almost exclusively Japanese native-speaking teachers. This means that exposure to native English can be limited for many learners, who may have few opportunities to practice listening and speaking.[6]

Loanwords

Parking ticket machine in Osaka, Japan. Above the English version is katakana - パーキング・チケット paakingu chiketto, the wasei-eigo term.[7]

While wasei-eigo comprises English-like Japanese words and phrases invented in Japan, there are also many more recognisably English loanwords in Japanese, though the pronunciation has usually changed considerably. For example, as Japanese has five vowels compared to the twenty-plus of many native English varieties, these sounds will systematically change: for example, the English vowel in 'bird' emerges as [a:] in Japanese: 'bird' becomes バード baado - which is also how 'bard' is pronounced when borrowed into Japanese.[8]

Lexical borrowing is not an attempt at learning another language, but negative attitudes to it can nevertheless arise. For some English speakers, the systematic and entirely usual practice of adopting words from other languages leads to some amusement, generally because of the pronunciation or perceived 'misuse' of English. This in turn leads to such Japanese words being labelled 'Engrish', even though they form part of Japanese rather than Japanese English. Japanese English speakers may, however, use them when speaking English - effectively double-borrowing them from English to Japanese, and from Japanese to Japanese English.

'Engrish' as a term

English in Japan is often colloquially known as Engrish, a term whose spelling mimics the supposed Japanese inability to articulate the difference between (usually English) [ɹ] and [l]. The acceptability of this term is debatable; many Japanese may consider it derogatory. Its use is rooted in the observation that Japanese and a few other East Asian languages have no /r/-/l/ contrast as English does - this could be described as an Anglocentric reference, identifying a difference as a deficiency relative to English. It is most widely used by English speakers as humorous slang. Writers attempting to render JE on paper tend to either eliminate the letter l and replace it with r, or else mix them randomly, producing such spellings as rice for lice. Furthermore, Japanese users of English sometimes mix up the two, leading to mis-spellings in English.

Japanese does have an /r/ phoneme, which is phonetically often similar to the pronunciation of t or d where these occur between vowels and in an unstressed syllable of North American English, e.g. city or butter. This sound is known to phoneticians as a flap and transcribed as [ɾ] but is only one of several variants of r found in Japanese. Another is the similar alveolar lateral flap [ɺ]. Some speakers will also pronounce it as a [d] in word-initial position, and some forms may be perceived by English speakers as an [l]. The confusion arises because phonetically the Japanese /r/ is typically articulated similarly to the pronunciation of English [l], but phonologically serves as an /r/. Therefore, misinterpretations involving /r/ and /l/ may be as much due to listeners' misperceptions as speakers' approximations.

Popular culture

English is commonplace in Japanese popular culture, such as in song lyrics, and remains highly fashionable. Japanese pop music, or J-pop (ジェイポップ Jei-poppu), often features songs which mix English words and phrases with Japanese. Shop signs and advertising frequently include titles or slogans in English, in some cases these are not really intended to be communicative. English expressions may also appear in katakana in advertising or logos. One Japanese company uses the name ザ・100円ショップ Za Hyaku-en Shoppu 'The Hundred-yen Shop',[9] in which the English definite article 'the' appears in katakana - a grammatical word which has no equivalent in Japanese, and is therefore not a loanword. At other outlets, 'the' appears in English.

Footnotes

  1. ↑ about.com: 'Japanese phrase of the day (useful Japanese phrases) - Gomi o dasu.' ごみを出す Gomi o dasu means 'take out the rubbish/garbage'.
  2. ↑ For example, in Murray (1999), which includes a section on wasei-eigo. One example of this is desuku (デスク) from English desk, which is actually a title for a journalist. In Japanese, job titles can be used as forms of address, with the honorific -san (-さん). It is therefore acceptable to refer to a journalist, for example, as desuku-san (literally 'Mr Desk'). These words are subject to Japanese grammar just as a native item would be; e.g. they can form compounds with Japanese words, and the meaning may differ, as in famikon (ファミコン) 'family computer', meaning 'games console'. Wasei-eigo words are usually written in katakana, though occasionally other scripts may be used, as in purinto kurabu (プリント倶楽部) - i.e. 'print club' (a special kind of photo booth), the full form of purikura (プリクラ).
  3. ↑ Students tested in the Teaching of English for International Communication exam are assessed in listening and reading comprehension, each carrying 50% of the final mark.
  4. ↑ Sakui & Gaies (1999: 488).
  5. ↑ Sakui (2004: 156-157).
  6. ↑ Many prospective students also attend 学習 juku (cram schools) in the evenings to study English. Teachers in these schools are often undergraduate students.
  7. ↑ Parking ticket in British English usually means a notice of illegal parking handed down by a traffic warden; the term parking meter ticket or pay and display ticket would be used in reference to a parking meter machine.
  8. ↑ Usually for a 'bard' character in a role-playing game.
  9. ↑ '100-yen shops' are very common sales outlets in Japan, where a variety of household goods can be bought inexpensively - usually for ¥100.

See also

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