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'''Red Dwarf''' is a [[science fiction]] [[situation comedy]] originally aired on [[United Kingdom|British]] [[television]] by the [[BBC]] in 1988. By the final series in 1999, it gone from a [[cult television]] favourite to mainstream success, spawning several original [[novelisation]]s and accompanying [[merchandising|merchandise]]. Interest in ''Red Dawarf'' remains high, with a loyal [[fan]] base and continuing attempts to launch a [[movie]] version of the series.


{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: 25em; text-align: left; font-size: 95%;"
''Red Dwarf'' was created by [[Rob Grant]] and [[Doug Naylor]], [[Manchester]]-based scriptwriting partners who worked under the pseudonym [[Grant Naylor]]. Their partnership lasted from the late 1970s, when they worked on several series together and wrote material for various [[comedian]]s such as [[Jasper Carrott]]. During this time, they were attempting to get a sci-fi sitcom into production, with the central character the last [[human]] in the [[universe]]. In 1983, this saw the light of day on [[radio]] as ''Dave Hollins: Space Cadet'', though Grant and Naylor continued to approach the BBC with a script made for television which took this basic idea and expanded it. This script, which was rejected by the BBC for three years, was called ''Red Dwarf'', after the [[mining]] ship on which the central character would find himself almost alone.
|+ style="font-size: larger;" | '''{{{name}}}'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;" | [[Image:{{{image}}}|300px| ]]<br>{{{caption}}}
|-
! Spoken in:
| originally [[England]]; spread to the rest of the [[British Isles]] and to the former colonies of the [[United Kingdom]]; now a [[world language]] also spoken as a [[first language]] in the [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]] and as a first or subsequent language in many other [[country|countries]], including [[India]] and [[Singapore]].
|-
! ''Speakers:'':
| at least 500,000,000 speakers as a first or subsequent language;<ref>See ''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue]''.</ref> over 330,000,000 [[native speaker]]s; many millions more have some knowledge.
|-
! ''Language Family:'':
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[English languages|English]]


| colspan="2" style="font-size: smaller;" | {{{footnotes|}}}
The BBC rejected the script several times because it was felt that a sitcom with science-fiction elements would not work. Grant and Naylor kept submitting basically the same script through the producer [[Paul Jackson]], who eventually convinced the corporation to commission six episodes. ''Red Dwarf'' aired five years after ''Dave Hollins'' was first broadcast.
|}


The new programme had been considerably changed and expanded upon. Hollins became [[Dave Lister]], a lazy and rather unkempt employee of the Jupiter Mining Corporation, who has the dubious honour of being the lowest-ranked crew member of the JMC's gigantic ship ''Red Dwarf'', a vessel sent through the [[solar system]] on a mining expedition. His room-mate is [[Arnold Rimmer]], a deeply competitive, throughly nasty incompentent who has reached the dizzying heights of second-lowest rank aboard the ship. Lister is punished for bringing aboard an [[quaratine|unquarantined]] [[cat]] by being placed in [[suspended animation]] for eighteen months; however, while he and his cat are respectively sealed in stasis and the ship's hold, a [[radiation]] leak kills everyone else on board.


{| cellpadding="1" style="float: right; border: 1px solid #8888aa; background: #f7f8ff; padding: 5px; font-size: 90%; margin: 0px 0px 15px 15px; clear:right;"
Having set up the idea of a ship the size of a [[city]], Grant and Naylor now had Lister almost alone in the universe; three million years have passed before ''Red Dwarf'''s [[computer]], the artificially-(un)intelligent [[Holly (Red Dwarf)|Holly]], was able to release him unharmed. Whereas Dave Hollins had only the ship's computer for company, Dave Lister was given two new companions: a [[hologram]] simulation of the long-dead Rimmer, and [[Cat (Red Dwarf)|Cat]], apparently the last of a [[race]] of feline humanoids that [[evolution|evolved]] from Lister's [[pet]]. With the crew reduced to [[dust]] (as Lister discovered, but not before accidentally eating some of their remains), these four characters would find themselves travelling through an empty universe; initially confined to the ship, the series moved towards [[comedy drama]] as more [[money]] flowed into the production team's coffers and more [[special effects]] and [[location filming]] was made possible.
|-
| style="background: #ccf; text-align: center;" | '''[[English]]''' [ɪŋglɪʃ]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|'''Spoken:''' originally in [[England]]; spread to the rest of the [[British Isles]] and to the former colonies of the [[United Kingdom]]; now a [[world language]] also spoken as a [[first language]] in the [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Ireland]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]] and as a first or subsequent language in many other [[country|countries]], including [[India]] and [[Singapore]].
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|
|-
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|''Speakers:'' at least 500,000,000 speakers as a first or subsequent language;<ref>See ''[http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng Ethnologue]''.</ref> over 330,000,000 [[native speaker]]s; many millions more have some knowledge.
|-
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|''Language Family:'' [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
|-
| style="padding-left: 1.1em;"|[[English languages|English]]
|-
|style="border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc"|
|-
| style="padding-left: 1.0em;"|''Script:'' Written in the [[Roman alphabet]].
|-
|}
 
 
 
Wikipedia English box:
 
{{Infobox Language
| name= English [ɪŋglɪʃ]
| states=Originally in [[England]]; spread to the rest of the [[British Isles]] and to the former colonies of the [[United Kingdom]]; now a [[world language]] spoken as a [[first language]] in the [[USA]], [[Canada]], [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]] and [[South Africa]] and as a first or subsequent language in many other [[country|countries]], including [[India]] and [[Singapore]].
| speakers=At least 500,000,000 speakers as a first or subsequent language; over 330,000,000 [[native speaker]]s; many millions more have some knowledge.
| fam1= [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]]
| fam2= [[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3= [[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4= [[English languages|English]]
| script=Written in the [[Roman alphabet]]
}}
 
 
Indo-European  (449)
 
    Germanic  (53)
 
        West  (41)
 
        English (3)
 
            English  [eng] (United Kingdom)
 
            Scots  [sco] (United Kingdom)
 
            Yinglish  [yib] (USA)
 
{{Infobox Language
| name= English
| familycolor=Indo-European
| pronunciation=/ˈɪŋglɪʃ/
| states=<!--Please keep this list short and concise.-->[[Australia]], [[Canada]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Jamaica]], [[Kenya]], [[Liberia]], [[Malaysia]], [[New Zealand]], [[Nigeria]], [[Philippines]], [[South Africa]], [[Singapore]], [[United Kingdom]], [[United States]] and many other countries (see article for full list)
| speakers=First language: 380 million <br />Second language: 600 million <br /> Learners: Over 1 billion<ref name="triumph" />
| rank= 2-4 (native speakers) <br /> 1 (total) 
| fam2=[[Germanic languages|Germanic]]
| fam3=[[West Germanic languages|West Germanic]]
| fam4=[[Anglo-Frisian languages|Anglo-Frisian]]
| fam5=[[Anglic languages|Anglic]]
| script=[[Latin alphabet|Latin]]
| nation='''''Exclusive'':''' [[Antigua and Barbuda]], [[Barbados]], [[Belize]], [[Botswana]], [[Brunei]], [[Dominica]], [[The Gambia]], [[Grenada]], [[Guyana]], [[Jamaica]], [[Liberia]], [[The Bahamas]], [[United Kingdom]] ''(de facto)'',  [[United States of America|United States]] ''(de facto)'', [[Australia]] ''(de facto)''  <br>'''''Non-exclusive'':''' [[Cameroon]], [[Canada]], [[Hong Kong]], [[India]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Kenya]], [[Kiribati]], [[Kosovo]], [[Lesotho]], [[Malaysia]], [[Malta]], [[New Zealand]] ''(de facto)'', [[Pakistan]], [[Philippines]], [[Singapore]] ''(de facto)'', [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]]
| iso1=en|iso2=eng|iso3=eng|map=[[Image:Anglospeak.png|center|300px]]<center><small>World countries, states, and provinces where English is a primary language are dark blue; countries, states, and provinces where it is an official, but not a primary language are light blue. </center></small>
}}
 
{{linguistics}}
'''Historical linguistics''' (also '''diachronic linguistics''') is the study of language change. It has several main concerns, such as:
* to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages
* to describe the linguistic history of [[speech community|speech communities]]
* to reconstruct the pre-history of languages and determine their relatedness, grouping them into [[Language family|language families]] (see [[comparative linguistics]])
* to develop general theories about how and why language changes
* to explain how [[language variation]] results in [[language change]].
 
Modern historical linguistics dates from the late [[18th century]] and grew out of the earlier discipline of [[philology]], the study of ancient texts and documents, which goes back to antiquity.
 
At first historical linguistics was [[comparative linguistics]] and mainly concerned with establishing language families and the reconstruction of prehistoric languages, using the [[comparative method]] and [[internal reconstruction]]. The focus was mainly on the well-known [[Indo-European languages]], many of which had long written histories, though other language groupings, such as [[Finno-Ugric languages|Finno-Ugric]] and [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] (see [[Uralic languages|Uralic]] and [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]]) were also recognized and studied in those early years. But since then, significant comparative linguistic work has been done on numerous other [[Language family|language families]] of the world. [[Comparative linguistics]] is now, however, only a part of a more broadly conceived discipline of historical linguistics. For the [[Indo-European languages]] comparative study is now a highly specialised field and most research is being carried out on the subsequent development of these languages, particularly the development of the modern standard varieties.
 
Initially, ''all'' modern linguistics was historical in orientation - even the study of modern dialects involved looking at their origins. But [[Saussure]] drew a distinction between [[synchronic linguistics|synchronic ]] and diachronic linguistics, which is fundamental to the present day organization of the discipline. Primacy is accorded to synchronic linguistics, and diachronic linguistics is defined as the study of successive synchronic stages. Saussure's clear demarcation, however, is now seen to be idealised. In practice, a purely synchronic linguistics is not possible for any period before the invention of the [[gramophone]]: written records always lag behind speech in reflecting linguistic developments, and in any case are difficult to date accurately before the development of the modern [[title page]]. Also, the work of [[sociolinguistics|sociolinguists]] on linguistic variation has shown synchronic states are not uniform: the speech habits of older and younger speakers differ in ways which point to language change. Synchronic variation is linguistic change in progress.
 
The biological [[origin of language]] is in principle part of the remit of historical linguistics, but most linguistics regard it as too remote to be reliably established by the [[comparative method]], given the remoteness from historical records. Other techniques, such as [[mass lexical comparison]], are regarded by some as means of overcoming the limitations of the comparative method, but most linguists regard them as unreliable.
 
The findings of historical linguistics are often used as a basis for hypotheses about the groupings and movements of peoples, particularly in the prehistoric period. However, it is now recognized that relating language to [[ethnic identity]] is problematic, as is relating language history to [[archaeology|archaeological]] or [[genetics|genetic]] evidence.
 
==See also==
*[[Comparative linguistics]]
*[[Comparative method]]
*[[Glottochronology]]
*[[Indo-European studies]]
*[[Language change]]
*[[Language family|Language families]]
*[[Paleolinguistics]]
*[[Proto-language]]
==Bibliography==
* [[August Schleicher]]: ''Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen.'' (Kurzer Abriss der indogermanischen Ursprache, des Altindischen, Altiranischen, Altgriechischen, Altitalischen, Altkeltischen, Altslawischen, Litauischen und Altdeutschen.) (2 vols.) Weimar, H. Boehlau (1861/62); reprinted by Minerva GmbH, Wissenschaftlicher Verlag, ISBN 3-8102-1071-4
*[[Karl Brugmann]], [[Berthold Delbrück]], ''[[Grundriss der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen]]'' (1886-1916).
*Theodora Bynon, ''Historical Linguistics'' (Cambridge University Press, 1977) ISBN 0-521-29188-7
*Richard D. Janda and Brian D. Joseph (Eds), ''The Handbook of Historical Linguistics'' (Blackwell, 2004) ISBN 1-4051-2747-3
*Roger Lass, ''Historical linguistics and language change''. (Cambridge University Press, 1997) ISBN 0-521-45924-9
*Winfred P. Lehmann, ''Historical Linguistics: An Introduction'' (Holt, 1962) ISBN 0-03-011430-6
*April McMahon, ''Understanding Language Change'' (Cambridge University Press, 1994) ISBN 0-521-44665-1
*James, Milroy, Linguistic Variation and Change'' (Blackwell, 1992) ISBN 0-631-14367-X
*M.L. Samuels, ''Linguistic Evolution'' (Cambridge University Press, 1972) ISBN 0-521-29188-7
*R.L. Trask,(ed.)''Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics '' (Fitzroy Dearborn, 2001) ISBN 1-57958-218-4

Revision as of 03:13, 6 June 2007

Red Dwarf is a science fiction situation comedy originally aired on British television by the BBC in 1988. By the final series in 1999, it gone from a cult television favourite to mainstream success, spawning several original novelisations and accompanying merchandise. Interest in Red Dawarf remains high, with a loyal fan base and continuing attempts to launch a movie version of the series.

Red Dwarf was created by Rob Grant and Doug Naylor, Manchester-based scriptwriting partners who worked under the pseudonym Grant Naylor. Their partnership lasted from the late 1970s, when they worked on several series together and wrote material for various comedians such as Jasper Carrott. During this time, they were attempting to get a sci-fi sitcom into production, with the central character the last human in the universe. In 1983, this saw the light of day on radio as Dave Hollins: Space Cadet, though Grant and Naylor continued to approach the BBC with a script made for television which took this basic idea and expanded it. This script, which was rejected by the BBC for three years, was called Red Dwarf, after the mining ship on which the central character would find himself almost alone.

The BBC rejected the script several times because it was felt that a sitcom with science-fiction elements would not work. Grant and Naylor kept submitting basically the same script through the producer Paul Jackson, who eventually convinced the corporation to commission six episodes. Red Dwarf aired five years after Dave Hollins was first broadcast.

The new programme had been considerably changed and expanded upon. Hollins became Dave Lister, a lazy and rather unkempt employee of the Jupiter Mining Corporation, who has the dubious honour of being the lowest-ranked crew member of the JMC's gigantic ship Red Dwarf, a vessel sent through the solar system on a mining expedition. His room-mate is Arnold Rimmer, a deeply competitive, throughly nasty incompentent who has reached the dizzying heights of second-lowest rank aboard the ship. Lister is punished for bringing aboard an unquarantined cat by being placed in suspended animation for eighteen months; however, while he and his cat are respectively sealed in stasis and the ship's hold, a radiation leak kills everyone else on board.

Having set up the idea of a ship the size of a city, Grant and Naylor now had Lister almost alone in the universe; three million years have passed before Red Dwarf's computer, the artificially-(un)intelligent Holly, was able to release him unharmed. Whereas Dave Hollins had only the ship's computer for company, Dave Lister was given two new companions: a hologram simulation of the long-dead Rimmer, and Cat, apparently the last of a race of feline humanoids that evolved from Lister's pet. With the crew reduced to dust (as Lister discovered, but not before accidentally eating some of their remains), these four characters would find themselves travelling through an empty universe; initially confined to the ship, the series moved towards comedy drama as more money flowed into the production team's coffers and more special effects and location filming was made possible.