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**Therefore a force differing from the force of gravitation is operating, requiring a new designation;
**Therefore a force differing from the force of gravitation is operating, requiring a new designation;
***For historical reasons discussed later, we designate the force an ‘<b>electric force</b>’.
***For historical reasons discussed later, we designate the force an ‘<b>electric force</b>’.
<blockquote>
<!--<blockquote>
<p style="margin-left: 2%; margin-right: 6%; font-size: 1.0em; font-family: Gill Sans MT, Trebuchet MS;">...the electric force is approximately 42 orders of magnitude larger than the gravitational force. To see the enormity of this ratio, suppose that we represent the gravitational force by an arrow as long as a bacterium. How long would the length of the electric arrow be? Much larger than the height of a man; much taller than the Empire State Building; much larger than the Earth itself; much larger than the solar system; and much larger than the Milky Way. In fact, the electric arrow would be over 10 billion times larger than the "size" of the visible universe! That is why, when electrical forces are present, gravitational forces can be completely ignored.<ref name=hassani2010a>Hassani S. (2010) [http://books.google.com/books?id=oypZ_a9pqdsC&dq=from+atoms+to+galaxies&q=Chapter+12&hl=en&output=reader Electricity]. In: ''From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness''. Chapter 12. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, ISBN 9781439808498; ISBN 9781439808504 eBook-PDF.</ref> <ref name=hassani2010b>Hassani S. (2010) [http://books.google.com/books?id=oypZ_a9pqdsC&dq=from%20atoms%20to%20galaxies&source=gbs_similarbooks ''From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness'']. CRC Press. Page 176. ISBN 978-1-4398-0850-4 (Ebook-PDF).</ref></p>
<p style="margin-left: 2%; margin-right: 6%; font-size: 1.0em; font-family: Gill Sans MT, Trebuchet MS;">...the electric force is approximately 42 orders of magnitude larger than the gravitational force. To see the enormity of this ratio, suppose that we represent the gravitational force by an arrow as long as a bacterium. How long would the length of the electric arrow be? Much larger than the height of a man; much taller than the Empire State Building; much larger than the Earth itself; much larger than the solar system; and much larger than the Milky Way. In fact, the electric arrow would be over 10 billion times larger than the "size" of the visible universe! That is why, when electrical forces are present, gravitational forces can be completely ignored.<ref name=hassani2010a>Hassani S. (2010) [http://books.google.com/books?id=oypZ_a9pqdsC&dq=from+atoms+to+galaxies&q=Chapter+12&hl=en&output=reader Electricity]. In: ''From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness''. Chapter 12. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, ISBN 9781439808498; ISBN 9781439808504 eBook-PDF.</ref> <ref name=hassani2010b>Hassani S. (2010) [http://books.google.com/books?id=oypZ_a9pqdsC&dq=from%20atoms%20to%20galaxies&source=gbs_similarbooks ''From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness'']. CRC Press. Page 176. ISBN 978-1-4398-0850-4 (Ebook-PDF).</ref></p>
</blockquote>
</blockquote>-->
 
{|align="center" style="width:85%;font-size:9t5%;"
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<font face="Gill Sans MT">...the electric force is approximately 42 orders of magnitude larger than the gravitational force. To see the enormity of this ratio, suppose that we represent the gravitational force by an arrow as long as a bacterium. How long would the length of the electric arrow be? Much larger than the height of a man; much taller than the Empire State Building; much larger than the Earth itself; much larger than the solar system; and much larger than the Milky Way. In fact, the electric arrow would be over 10 billion times larger than the "size" of the visible universe! That is why, when electrical forces are present, gravitational forces can be completely ignored.</font><ref name=hassani2010a>Hassani S. (2010) [http://books.google.com/books?id=oypZ_a9pqdsC&dq=from+atoms+to+galaxies&q=Chapter+12&hl=en&output=reader Electricity]. In: ''From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness''. Chapter 12. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, ISBN 9781439808498; ISBN 9781439808504 eBook-PDF.</ref> <ref name=hassani2010b>Hassani S. (2010) [http://books.google.com/books?id=oypZ_a9pqdsC&dq=from%20atoms%20to%20galaxies&source=gbs_similarbooks ''From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness'']. CRC Press. Page 176. ISBN 978-1-4398-0850-4 (Ebook-PDF).
|}
*Experiments reveal also that:
*Experiments reveal also that:
**The force of attraction occurs between the ''protons'' in the nucleus and the surrounding electrons, the two groups normally equal in number;
**The force of attraction occurs between the ''protons'' in the nucleus and the surrounding electrons, the two groups normally equal in number;

Revision as of 21:02, 14 September 2011

Introduction

Consider this approach to defining ‘electric charge’:

  • Electric charge is a property of matter manifesting in certain of the particle constituents of matter.
  • At one level of explanation of matter, matter consists of atoms.
  • Studying atoms at the first layer of their substructure, viz., the nucleus and surrounding electrons, can provide a fruitful basis for explaining electric charge.
  • As a starting point, note that:
    • Electrons can maintain their location surrounding and revolving about the nucleus only because a radial force of attraction on them exists directed toward the nucleus. Otherwise the electrons would fly off.
  • Experiments reveal that:
    • The force of attraction between the electrons and the nucleus greatly exceeds the gravitational force generated by the masses of the two groups of particles;
    • Therefore a force differing from the force of gravitation is operating, requiring a new designation;
      • For historical reasons discussed later, we designate the force an ‘electric force’.

...the electric force is approximately 42 orders of magnitude larger than the gravitational force. To see the enormity of this ratio, suppose that we represent the gravitational force by an arrow as long as a bacterium. How long would the length of the electric arrow be? Much larger than the height of a man; much taller than the Empire State Building; much larger than the Earth itself; much larger than the solar system; and much larger than the Milky Way. In fact, the electric arrow would be over 10 billion times larger than the "size" of the visible universe! That is why, when electrical forces are present, gravitational forces can be completely ignored.[1] Cite error: Closing </ref> missing for <ref> tag -->

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

[9]

[10]

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Test

text[12] [Note 1]

Notes

  1. ↑ Historian John F. Fulton quotes Vesalius as exclaiming:

    I acknowledge no authority save the witness of mine own eyes—I must have the liberty to compare the dicta of Galen with the observed facts of bodily structure.

refs

  1. ↑ Hassani S. (2010) Electricity. In: From Atoms to Galaxies: A Conceptual Physics Approach to Scientific Awareness. Chapter 12. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, ISBN 9781439808498; ISBN 9781439808504 eBook-PDF.
  2. ↑ Barnes J. (1982) The Presocratic Philosophers'. Psychology Press. ISBN 978041505079. | Title link: Google Book extract.
  3. ↑ Elert G. (1998-2010) Electric Charge: Summary. The Physics Hypertextbook.
  4. ↑ Elert G. (1998-2010) Electric Charge. The Physics Hypertextbook.
  5. ↑ Franklin B. (1769) Experiments And Observations On Electricity, Made At Philadelphia in America: To which are added, Letters and Papers On Philosophical Subjects. David Henry, publisher. | Google Books Full-Text.
    • See pages 311 for Franklin's 1747 letter to Peter Collinson, with Franklin's first use of 'charge'.
  6. ↑ Gibilisco S. (2005) Electricity Demystified. New York: McGraw-Hill. | Stan Gibilisco is an electronics engineer and mathematician, author of numerous technical books on electronics and mathematics.
  7. ↑ Gilbert W. (1600, 1958) De magnete. Republication of the first English translation, from Gilbert's original in Latin, by P. Fleury Mottelay, in 1893. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486267616. | Google Books extract.
  8. ↑ Houston EJ. (1905) Electricity in every-day life. New York: P. F. Collier & Son, 1905. | Title link: Google Book Full-Text Volume 1 of 3.
    • That little piece of amber rubbed by Thales, some 2,500 years ago, appeared then to be very insignificant. Had the world but known, it was fraught with vast possibilities; for, in point of fact, Thales had unconsciously rediscovered Aladdin's Wonderful Lamp. As he rubbed, the Genie of electricity appeared, and demanded, "What wouldst thou have? I am ready to obey thee as the slave of the lamp, I and the other slaves of the lamp." But the question remained unanswered. Neither Thales nor the witnesses of his experiment made any request nor asked its genii to aid them. They had ears, but they heard not, and so the genie disappeared, with all that he was both willing and able to do left undone.
  9. ↑ Jonnes J. (2004) Empires of Light: Edison, Tesla, Westinghouse, and the Race to Electrify the World. Random House Digital, Inc. ISBN 0375758844. | Title link: a Google Books extract.
  10. ↑ Electric. Webster's Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged. Merriam-Webster, 2002.
  11. ↑ charge v.. New Oxford American Dictionary. Edited by Angus Stevenson and Christine A. Lindberg. Oxford University Press, 2010. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. Accessed. 3 July 2011.
  12. ↑ Fulton JF. (1950) Vesalius Four Centuries Later. Logan Clendening Lectures on the History and Philosophy of Medicine, First Series: i Vesalius Four Centuries Later; ii Medicine in the Eighteenth Century. University of Kansas Press. | PDF.

Test-2

UPDATE
What We Eat in America, NHANES 2007-2008
Mean Potassium Intakes. mg and mmoles per day


All Individuals, 2 and over

15% reporting potassium supplement

Sample Size, 8421

Food K, 2510 mg (SE 46.1) [64 mmoles]

Supplement K, 14 mg (SE 1.5) [<1 mmole]

Food + Supplement K, 2524 (SE 47.1) [65 mmoles]

Food + Supplement K, % of IOM recommendation, 50%


Males, 20 and over

21% reporting potassium supplement

Sample Size, 2662

Food K, 3026 mg (SE 50.4) [77 mmoles]

Supplement K, 22 (SE 1.8) [~1 mmole]

Food + Supplement K, 3048 (SE 51.2) [78 mmoles]

Food + Supplement K, % of IOM recommendation, 65%


Females, 20 and over

17% reporting potassium supplement

Sample Size, 2670

Food K, 2282 mg (SE 50.6) [58 mmoles]

Supplement K, 16 (SE 2.4) [<1 mmole]

—NHANES 2007-2008[1]


refs

  1. ↑ What We Eat In America, NHANES


Test3

Potassium Intake
What We Eat in America
2005-2006 and 2007-2008
Years
Gender
Potassium
mmol/day
%
Of
Recom-
mended
2005-2006
Men
81
68
2005-2006
Women
61
50
 
 
 
 
2007-2008
Men
78
65
2007-2008
Women
58
50
Recommended “Adequate Intake”, 120 mmol/day, identical for men and women, and therefore not adjusted for differences in body size or lean body mass between men and women.
Because the Food and Nutrition Board indicated that eating ordinary foods imposed no danger of consuming excess potassium except in certain potassium non-tolerant conditions, most Americans could likely achieve “adequate intakes” or more by doubling their potassium intake.

Holding References Various

[1]

Citations

  1. ↑ Cunningham A. (1997) The Anatomical Renaissance: The Resurrection of the Anatomical Projects of the Ancients. London: Scolar Press. ISBN 1859283381.
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