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| | In [[gastroenterology]], '''pseudomembranous enterocolitis''' is an "acute inflammation of the intestinal mucosa that is characterized by the presence of pseudomembranes or plaques in the small intestine (pseudomembranous enteritis) and the large intestine (pseudomembranous colitis). It is commonly associated with [[antibiotic]] therapy and [[clostridium difficile]] colonization."<ref>{{MeSH}}</ref> The disorder is an increasing matter of concern, as it is one of the more common [[nosocomial]] infections, but is also being seen in community-acquired cases. |
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| In [[medicine]], '''pseudomembranous enterocolitis''' is an "acute inflammation of the intestinal mucosa that is characterized by the presence of pseudomembranes or plaques in the small intestine (pseudomembranous enteritis) and the large intestine (pseudomembranous colitis). It is commonly associated with [[antibiotic]] therapy and [[clostridium difficile]] colonization."<ref>{{MeSH}}</ref>
| | ==Epidemiology== |
| | About 50% of patients with diarrhea after [[antibiotic]]s that is severe enough to be admitted to the hospital have pseudomembranes on [[colonoscopy]].<ref name="pmid17028914">{{cite journal |author=Lee KS, Shin WG, Jang MK, ''et al'' |title=Who are susceptible to pseudomembranous colitis among patients with presumed antibiotic-associated diarrhea? |journal=Dis. Colon Rectum |volume=49 |issue=10 |pages=1552–8 |year=2006 |month=October |pmid=17028914 |doi=10.1007/s10350-006-0694-z |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10350-006-0694-z |issn=}}</ref> |
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| ==Diagnosis== | | ==Diagnosis== |
| The accuracy of laboratory tests is:<ref name="pmid17918076">{{cite journal |author=Peterson LR, Manson RU, Paule SM, ''et al'' |title=Detection of toxigenic Clostridium difficile in stool samples by real-time polymerase chain reaction for the diagnosis of C. difficile-associated diarrhea |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=45 |issue=9 |pages=1152–60 |year=2007 |month=November |pmid=17918076 |doi=10.1086/522185 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/522185?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dncbi.nlm.nih.gov |issn=}}</ref>
| | [[Clinical practice guideline]]s address diagnosis.<ref name="pmid20307191">{{cite journal| author=Cohen SH, Gerding DN, Johnson S, Kelly CP, Loo VG, McDonald LC et al.| title=Clinical practice guidelines for Clostridium difficile infection in adults: 2010 update by the society for healthcare epidemiology of America (SHEA) and the infectious diseases society of America (IDSA). | journal=Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol | year= 2010 | volume= 31 | issue= 5 | pages= 431-55 | pmid=20307191 |
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| | | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/eutils/elink.fcgi?dbfrom=pubmed&tool=clinical.uthscsa.edu/cite&retmode=ref&cmd=prlinks&id=20307191 | doi=10.1086/651706 }} </ref> |
| |+ Accuracy of stool tests for<br/>presumed pseudomembranous enterocolitis<ref name="pmid17918076"/>
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| ! !! Sensitivity and specificity|Sensitivity!! [[Sensitivity and specificity|Specificity]]
| | Sigmoidoscopy has a [[sensitivity and specificity|sensitivity]] of 31% in detecting pseudomembranes as compared to [[colonosopy]].<ref name="pmid7323683">Seppala, K, Hjelt, L, Supponen, P. Colonoscopy in the diagnosis of antibiotic-associated colitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1981; 16:465. PMID 7323683</ref> |
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| | Cytotoxin by enzyme [[immunoassay]]|| 73%|| 97%
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| | Cell culture cytotoxin assay<br/>(tissue culture assay)|| 77%|| 97%
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| | Real-time [[polymerase chain reaction]] for<br/>toxin B gene|| 93%|| 97%
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| | Anaerobic culture<br/>(for toxigenic [[Clostridium difficile|C. difficile]] strains)|| 100%|| 96%
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| | Sigmoidoscopy<ref name="pmid7323683">Seppala, K, Hjelt, L, Supponen, P. Colonoscopy in the diagnosis of antibiotic-associated colitis. Scand J Gastroenterol 1981; 16:465. PMID 7323683</ref><br/>(for pseudomembranes)|| 31%||
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| ==Treatment== | | ==Treatment== |
| ===Antibiotics===
| | {{Seealso|Clostridium difficile}} |
| Various antibiotics have been studied in [[randomized controlled trial]]s.<ref name="pmid17636768">{{cite journal |author=Nelson R |title=Antibiotic treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD004610 |year=2007 |pmid=17636768 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004610.pub3 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004610.pub3 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8722937">{{cite journal |author=Wenisch C, Parschalk B, Hasenhündl M, Hirschl AM, Graninger W |title=Comparison of vancomycin, teicoplanin, metronidazole, and fusidic acid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=813–8 |year=1996 |month=May |pmid=8722937 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid19133801">{{cite journal |author=Musher DM, Logan N, Bressler AM, Johnson DP, Rossignol JF |title=Nitazoxanide versus Vancomycin in Clostridium difficile Infection: A Randomized, Double-Blind Study |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2009 |month=January |pmid=19133801 |doi=10.1086/596552 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/596552?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dncbi.nlm.nih.gov |issn=}}</ref> [[Teicoplanin]] may be the most effective antibiotic.<ref name="pmid17636768">{{cite journal |author=Nelson R |title=Antibiotic treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD004610 |year=2007 |pmid=17636768 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004610.pub3 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004610.pub3 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid8722937">{{cite journal |author=Wenisch C, Parschalk B, Hasenhündl M, Hirschl AM, Graninger W |title=Comparison of vancomycin, teicoplanin, metronidazole, and fusidic acid for the treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=813–8 |year=1996 |month=May |pmid=8722937 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref> [[Vancomycin]] has an insignificant trend towards being better than [[metronidazole]].<ref name="pmid17636768">{{cite journal |author=Nelson R |title=Antibiotic treatment for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea in adults |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD004610 |year=2007 |pmid=17636768 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004610.pub3 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004610.pub3 |issn=}}</ref>
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| ===Administration of bacteria===
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| [[Probiotic]] administration may<ref name="pmid16635227">{{cite journal |author=McFarland LV |title=Meta-analysis of probiotics for the prevention of antibiotic associated diarrhea and the treatment of Clostridium difficile disease |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=812–22 |year=2006 |month=April |pmid=16635227 |doi=10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00465.x |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1572-0241.2006.00465.x |issn=}}</ref> or may not <ref name="pmid18254055">{{cite journal |author=Pillai A, Nelson R |title=Probiotics for treatment of Clostridium difficile-associated colitis in adults |journal=Cochrane Database Syst Rev |volume= |issue=1 |pages=CD004611 |year=2008 |pmid=18254055 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD004611.pub2 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004611.pub2 |issn=}}</ref>help according to a [[meta-analysis|meta-analyses]] and a more recent [[randomized controlled trial]].<ref name="pmid18840110">{{cite journal |author=Klarin B, Wullt M, Palmquist I, Molin G, Larsson A, Jeppsson B |title=Lactobacillus plantarum 299v reduces colonisation of Clostridium difficile in critically ill patients treated with antibiotics |journal=Acta Anaesthesiol Scand |volume=52 |issue=8 |pages=1096–102 |year=2008 |month=September |pmid=18840110 |doi=10.1111/j.1399-6576.2008.01748.x |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1399-6576.2008.01748.x |issn=}}</ref> However, probiotics can be harmful among [[intensive care]] patients.<ref name="pmid15889360">{{cite journal |author=Muñoz P, Bouza E, Cuenca-Estrella M, ''et al'' |title=Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia: an emerging infectious disease |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=1625–34 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=15889360 |doi=10.1086/429916 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?CID35391 |issn=}}</ref>
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| ===Recurrent infection===
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| A [[clinical prediction rule]] found that recurrent infection is more likely if age is more than 65 years, the patient has severe or fulminant illness, and additional antibiotic exposure occurs after after treatment of the initial Clostridium difficile infection.<ref name="pmid19162027">{{cite journal |author=Hu MY, Katchar K, Kyne L, ''et al'' |title=Prospective Derivation and Validation of a Clinical Prediction Rule for Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection |journal=Gastroenterology |volume= |issue= |pages= |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=19162027 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2008.12.038 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0016-5085(08)02262-2 |issn=}}</ref> Use of antacids may also be a risk factor for recurrence.<ref name="pmid18951661">{{cite journal |author=Garey KW, Sethi S, Yadav Y, DuPont HL |title=Meta-analysis to assess risk factors for recurrent Clostridium difficile infection |journal=J. Hosp. Infect. |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=298–304 |year=2008 |month=December |pmid=18951661 |doi=10.1016/j.jhin.2008.08.012 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0195-6701(08)00352-6 |issn=}}</ref>
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| Asymptomatic carriage should not be treated according to a [[meta-analysis]].<ref name="pmid9500319">{{cite journal |author=Shim JK, Johnson S, Samore MH, Bliss DZ, Gerding DN |title=Primary symptomless colonisation by Clostridium difficile and decreased risk of subsequent diarrhoea |journal=Lancet |volume=351 |issue=9103 |pages=633–6 |year=1998 |month=February |pmid=9500319 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(97)08062-8 |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140-6736(97)08062-8 |issn=}}</ref>
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| ====Antibiotics====
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| Observational cohort [[study|studies]] conflict regarding the best agent and suggest [[vancomycin]] may<ref name="pmid12135033">{{cite journal |author=McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Surawicz CM |title=Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=97 |issue=7 |pages=1769–75 |year=2002 |month=July |pmid=12135033 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9270(02)04195-3 |url= |issn=}}</ref> or may not<ref name="pmid16477549">{{cite journal |author=Pépin J, Routhier S, Gagnon S, Brazeau I |title=Management and outcomes of a first recurrence of Clostridium difficile-associated disease in Quebec, Canada |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=758–64 |year=2006 |month=March |pmid=16477549 |doi=10.1086/501126 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/501126?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dncbi.nlm.nih.gov |issn=}}</ref> be better than [[metronidazole]]. Various methods exist for the administration of [[vancomycin]]<ref name="pmid12135033">{{cite journal |author=McFarland LV, Elmer GW, Surawicz CM |title=Breaking the cycle: treatment strategies for 163 cases of recurrent Clostridium difficile disease |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=97 |issue=7 |pages=1769–75 |year=2002 |month=July |pmid=12135033 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9270(02)04195-3 |url= |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid4050760">{{cite journal |author=Tedesco FJ, Gordon D, Fortson WC |title=Approach to patients with multiple relapses of antibiotic-associated pseudomembranous colitis |journal=Am. J. Gastroenterol. |volume=80 |issue=11 |pages=867–8 |year=1985 |month=November |pmid=4050760 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref>
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| Serial therapy with [[vancomycin]] and [[rifaximin]] has been studied in a small uncontrolled series of patients.<ref name="pmid17304459">{{cite journal |author=Johnson S, Schriever C, Galang M, Kelly CP, Gerding DN |title=Interruption of recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea episodes by serial therapy with vancomycin and rifaximin |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=846–8 |year=2007 |month=March |pmid=17304459 |doi=10.1086/511870 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/511870?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dncbi.nlm.nih.gov |issn=}}</ref>
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| ====Administration of bacteria====
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| [[Probiotic]]s may help.<ref name="pmid18545161">{{cite journal |author=Surawicz CM |title=Role of probiotics in antibiotic-associated diarrhea, Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea, and recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhea |journal=J. Clin. Gastroenterol. |volume=42 Suppl 2 |issue= |pages=S64–70 |year=2008 |month=July |pmid=18545161 |doi=10.1097/MCG.0b013e3181646d09 |url= |issn=}}</ref> However, probiotics can be harmful among [[intensive care]] patients.<ref name="pmid15889360">{{cite journal |author=Muñoz P, Bouza E, Cuenca-Estrella M, ''et al'' |title=Saccharomyces cerevisiae fungemia: an emerging infectious disease |journal=Clin. Infect. Dis. |volume=40 |issue=11 |pages=1625–34 |year=2005 |month=June |pmid=15889360 |doi=10.1086/429916 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?CID35391 |issn=}}</ref>
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| Rectal infusion of feces helped according to case reports.<ref name="pmid6137662">{{cite journal |author=Schwan A, Sjölin S, Trottestam U, Aronsson B |title=Relapsing clostridium difficile enterocolitis cured by rectal infusion of homologous faeces |journal=Lancet |volume=2 |issue=8354 |pages=845 |year=1983 |month=October |pmid=6137662 |doi= |url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140-6736(83)90753-5 |issn=}}</ref><ref name="pmid18808083">{{cite journal |author=Nieuwdorp M, van Nood E, Speelman P, ''et al'' |title=[Treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea with a suspension of donor faeces] |language=Dutch; Flemish |journal=Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd |volume=152 |issue=35 |pages=1927–32 |year=2008 |month=August |pmid=18808083 |doi= |url= |issn=}}</ref>
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| ==References== | | ==References== |
| <references/> | | <references/> |
