History of England

The History of Britain covers the history of Great Britain and Ireland (before the creation of an independent Eire) from prehistoric times to the present.

Chronology and Gateway
A chronology of major events, combined with a gateway to British history websites, is available on the timelines subpage. Template:TOC-right

Prehistory

The British Isles emerged in their present form at around 6000 BCE as a result of a rise in the sea level that ended their status as a peninsular on European landmass .

the evidence of Stonehenge suggests that some were accomplished civil engineers, and some had acquired some knowledge of astronomy.

Beaker pottery is usually of good quality ware, sometimes polished on the outside and almost always decorated with impressed ornament in patterns. The Beaker people kept livestock and cultivated flax and cereals, growing much more barley than wheat, used woven fabrics. ) Archery played an important part in their lives. the wide diffusion of their pottery suggests a mobile and energetic people, and their grave goods indicate fairly extensive trading activities.

Celtic Britain

The history of Celtic Britain is limited by a lack of textual evidence about the period. It is clear from the archeological evidence that its inhabitants were far from primitive. "Ogham inscriptions" on surviving stone artifacts prove that they used an alphabetic language that modern linguists have been able to decipher, and historians tend to conclude that a Celtic aversion to textual recording must have been the reason for the lack of other textual evidence. The Celts are known to have been migrants from Northern Europe because of their common cultural characteristics, including related languages and similar artifacts. They were mostly farmers, and among them were users of metal ploughs and various forms of wheeled transport . Despite the existence of those common cultural characteristics, there is no evidence to suggest that there was any coordination of their activities, or that any Celt thought of himself as a member of any organisation larger than his own tribe . However, the two dozen or so tribes that settled in Britain and Ireland have been categorised into two linguistic groupings - the "Goidelic" group including Irish, Manx and Scottish; and the "Brythonic" group including Breton, Welsh and Cornish - or, more precisely, those were the languages into which they gradually evolved. All of those languages have survived of have been revived, and they constitute one category of the modern legacy from the Celtic migration. (The various modern "Celtic Revival" organisations also lay claim to a range of cultural legacies, some of which, such as "Celtic Music" consist of developments occurring long after Celtic Britain gave way to Roman Britain).

Roman Britain

When Claudius successfully invaded in 43, it was in aid of another fugitive British ruler, this time Verica of the Atrebates. The Catuvellaunian territory became the nucleus of a new Roman province, while Tiberius Claudius Cogidubnus was sent up as the client ruler of Atrebatian and other lands. Over the course of the 1st century Roman control expended west into Wales, then north into Scotland. However, the Roman presence in the north proved untenable, and was withdrawn to the line of Hadrian's Wall in the 2nd century.

The Middle Ages

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Early Modern Era

Tudor era: 1485-1605

• Henry VIII
• Elizabeth I

Stuart era and Civil War: 1605-1688

English Civil War 1642 - 1648

For more information see English Civil War

The English Civil war was the conflict between King Charles I of England and a large body of his subjects, generally called the "parliamentarians," that culminated in the defeat and execution of the king and the establishment of a republican commonwealth.

The English civil war began in January 1642 as a result of long standing conflict between those that believed the recently established Parliament should rule the country, independent of King Charles' influence, and those that believed the King should rule by divine right. The war began when, on January 4^th 1642, Charles I marched on Parliament hoping to dissolve it, as it had recently passed a law limiting the King's power. However the Parliament had fled and Charles' attempt failed and thus both sides began recruiting as war was inevitable.

The King drew his support mainly from those of Anglican and Catholic backgrounds and also from the nobility. It was due to the large number of noblemen, who were trained to ride on horseback at a young age, that the King's supporters were nicknamed 'Cavaliers'. Those in support of the Parliament were usually from Puritan backgrounds as they had been persecuted by the King and felt that he and his supporters were possibly planning to return England to Catholicism. Those making up the Parliamentary army were contemptuously known as 'Roundheads' by the Royalists; this due to the very short hair cut worn by some of the younger soldiers. Support for the sides was also drawn from different geographical areas. The King drew support from the landowners in the north and west of the country establishing his base in Oxford, whereas the parliamentary army was strongest in the south-east where the growing merchant class in London joined their cause.

Throughout 1642 & 1643 there were no decisive battles, however 2 events of note occurred in favour of the parliamentarians. The first was the emergence of Oliver Cromwell as one of the army's leaders. A devout puritan with no military training, Cromwell changed the army's tactics, organisation and weaponry, changes that proved decisive in the second half of the conflict. The second event, the Parliament's alliance with the Scottish army, occurred in September 1643, under the promise that England would establish a centralised Presbyterian church after the war.

In early 1644 the Scottish army entered north England and with the parliamentary army dealt a series of crushing defeats, particularly at Marston Moor in July 1644 and Naseby in June 1645, as they moved south. In June 1646 Oxford surrendered and in 1647 the King surrendered to the Scots and was handed over to the Parliament who imprisoned him. However the King escaped and fled to Scotland. He managed to persuade the Scots to fight on his side but their army was defeated at Preston in August 1648. Charles was imprisoned again, beheaded on January 30^th, 1649, and the republic known as the Commonwealth was set up, governed by the Rump Parliament (without the House of Lords) and by an executive council of state.

• John Milton
• William Shakespeare

Later Stuarts and Hanoverians 1688-1837

• Charles II (Britain)
• James II
• William III (Britain)‎
• George I (Britain)
• George II (Britain)
• George III
• American Revolution
• George IV
• Edmund Burke
• Robert Walpole
• William IV
• Industrial revolution

Economic history

The Industrial revolution began in mid-18th century and by the 1840s had dramatically changed the economy.

Empire

• British Empire
• Benjamin Disraeli
• William Ewart Gladstone
• Irish Famine
• Queen Victoria

First World War

• George V
• Herbert Henry Asquith
• David Lloyd George
• World War I

Postwar: The Lloyd George years

• David Lloyd George

Prime Minister David Lloyd George led a coalition of Liberals and conservatives into the 1918 election. His letter endorsing coalition candidates was referred to as a coupon by Herbert Asquith, hence the term coupon election. This was the first election since 1910 and the first in which women had the vote. The major issues of the coalition programme where; a) to try the German Kaiser. b) To make Germany pay a large war indemnity. c) To create a country 'fit for heroes' who had returned from the war.

These policies were popular and Georges's reputation as 'the man who won the war' ensured that the coalition won by a wide margin. The election results were notable for the Sinn Féin success in Ireland, the rise of Labour with 59 seats as the main opposition and the beginning of the disintegration of the once mighty Liberal Party, whose supporters flocked to both the Conservatives and Labour in years to come.

In the early years of the new government a number of measures were passed which added to George's reputation as a social reformer. The Fisher Education Act (1918) abolished child labour. The Housing Act (1919) led to over 200,000 houses being built and the Insurance Act (1921) extended insurance to all workers suffering from illness or those unemployed. However the government was beset by a number of problems which led to George's resignation.

Four million men demobilised by the end of 1921. As women were not allowed to retain the jobs they had worked in during the war and because of the subsequent economic boom, most men were absorbed into industry. Yet many of these veterans were restless and yearned for a better life. This 'class conscioussness' led directly to the General Strikes of 1925 and the struggle for social reform within the nation.

In the summer of 1920 the boom turned to a slump. Unemployment was becoming a problem and by 1921 reached two million. Cutbacks in the budget ensured around £100 million was taken from housing, education and social services. The slump in turn led to industrial unrest, especially in the coalfields. The Miner's federation voted to strike in support of its demands of nationalisation of the mines, which they assumed would produce higher wages and less managerial control. Eventually they went on strike after a wage cut and called for sympathy from railwaymen and transport workers. When this support was later withdrawn the Unions were defeated.

These problems were gradually making George less popular. The existence of the "Lloyd George Fund" added a taint of corruption to the mix. Without a political party or funds he sought to amass by private means funds to ensure his political future. This in turn led to the trading of honours for donations.

Conservative bankbenchers were angry over the Anglo-Irish Treaty and awaited the opportunity to oust George. This came with the Chanak Crisis of 1922. A refusal by the Turks to accept the terms of the Treaty of Sévres led to George issuing an ultimatum before negotiations could begin. Angered by his responsibility for bringing the country to the brink of war, the Conservatives demanded an end to the postwar coalition. When they withdrew their support George resigned. Although he remained as leader of the Liberals from 1926 to 1931, he would never again hold political office.

Second World War

• George VI
• Winston Churchill
• World War II
• World War II, homefront

The powers of the central government increased dramatically. New departments were set up for a wide range of areas such as food, shipping and information. The Emergency Powers Acts of 1939 and 1940 gave the government wide powers of arrest. These were rarely used, and even Sir Oswald Mosley, Britain's leading fascist, was released from jail in 1943.

Postwar (1945-70)

British deaths from the Second World War numbered 393,000. Britain's economy suffered dreadfully, One quarter of the national wealth was spent on the war effort. The national debt tripled and two thirds of the export trade had been lost. Inflation had risen and the standard of living fallen. The Economist wrote, Our present needs are the direct consequence of the fact that we ought earliest, that we fought longest and that we fought hardest.

Egalitarianism after the war was a result of inter-class co-operation throughout the war. The victory of Clement Atlee's Labour Party and the radical social changes he promised were a testament to this. Liberal leader Sir William Beveridge wrote a report on Social Insurance in November, 1942 that was widely hailed and accepted by all parties. The "Beveridge report" promised a comprehensive scheme of social insurance from 'the cradle to the grave' against illness, unemployment and poverty. These adversities were to be overcome by the provision of social insurance for public health, free medical aid, unemployment insurance, improved housing and other reforming measures. There were to form the basis of the Welfare State. When the report was not given sufficient support by the wartime coalition, the greatest advocates of it - The Labour Party - staged the biggest parliamentary revolt of the 1940-1945 period. The Butler education Act of 1944, sponsored by the Conservatives, was of the same reforming nature as the Beveridge report. It raised the school leaving age to 15 and set up three types of free secondary education; grammar, technical and modern. All children sat the "11 plus" examination in order that the authorities could best decide what type of school best suited their abilities. In addition, nursery schools and schools for the handicapped were also established. Local authorities were to build schools and grant scholarships to provide greater access to higher education. There was also provision for school meals and improved medical services for children.

Recent history: 1970 to present

• Tony Blair
• Elizabeth II
• Margaret Thatcher