World War II, Origins

This article deals with the origins and causes of World War II in the Pacific (1937-41) and in Europe (1939)

Europe

In the 1930s the dictatorships of Adolf Hitler in Germany and Benito Mussolini in Italy continued to expand their armed strength and then began to use it in unprovoked aggressions against small or relatively defenseless nations. Italy moved against Ethiopia (October 1935); Germany, after first indicating its aims by marching back into the Rhineland (March 1936), absorbed Austria (March, 1938) and then put pressure on Czechoslovakia. Both Germany and Italy provided arms to the Nationalist forces in the Spanish Civil War, with the Societ Union providing aid to the Republican cause, while Britain, Framce and the U.S. remained neutral

These actions provided a dual test of their own war machinery and of the temper of the other large powers. They did not, however, provoke a general armament race or promote a resolute reaction in any of the other nations. During Italy's aggression against Ethiopia, Britain and France took refuge in the impotent League of Nations, and at the Munich Conference, (September 1938), Czechoslovakia, under pressure from the Western powers, yielded its western lands to Germany, thus stripping itself of a defensible independence.

In the spring of 1939 the Nationalist victory in Spain established another Fascist state in Europe. During the World War, Spain remained neutral, while sending "volunteer" divisions to help germany on the Eastern front.

In March 1939, Germany, having committed itself by the pact of Munich to desist from molesting Czechoslovakia, occupied the whole of the country. Two weeks later, on April 7, Italy invaded and occupied Albania, abetted by Germany's pledge of support in the event that any other power tried to interfere.

The effect on Europe's other major powers, France, Britain, and the Soviet Union, was the realization thaty appeasdement policies had failed. While their separate governments at long last recognized the measure of the danger, that recognition did not persuade them either to make common cause or separately to make preparations for war, except in one vital respect--the vigorous building-up of a defensive air force in Britain.

When Germany followed its grab of Czechoslovakia by making menacing demands upon Poland, after signing a full military alliance ("Axis") with Italy (May 1939), the other great powers could not unify behind Poland. Attempts were made, but Britain shied from such an alliance and would agree to nothing but consultation in case of attack. The Soviet Union was estranged equally by Britain's half-hearted approach and the refusal of Poland to admit Soviet troops to its soil in the event of war. Further, Moscow asked for a free hand with all border states as the price of a three-power alliance. Thus after long negotiations, Britain and France were unable to come to terms with Josef Stalin, who instead made his deal with Hitler.

In mid-April, 1939, Britain and France formed a united front in behalf of Turkey, Greece, Romania, and Poland, pledging their armed support to these states if they were attacked by Germany or Italy.

Throughout the summer of 1939, the issue remained in balance for peace or war in Europe, Germany meanwhile stepping up the campaign of violence and intimidation against Poland, but hesitating to move because of uncertainty about the Soviet Union's attitude.

On August 23, 1939, came the bombshell: a non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union that pledged both countries to keep the peace between themselves for ten years, allowed for critical sales of oil to Germany, divided Poland between the two, and (secretly) assigned the Baltics to the Soviets. This pact did not bind the two nations to joint military action in war, they had virtually that impact upon the peace balance of Europe. Germany felt free to proceed against Poland; the Soviet Union had signed the pact knowing that it would weigh the scale for a general war.

Bibliography

Europe

• Bell, P. M. H. The Origins of the Second World War in Europe. (1986). 326 pp.
• Boyce, Robert, and Joseph A. Maiolo. The Origins of World War Two: The Debate Continues (2003) excerpt and text search
• Deist, Wilhelm et al., ed. Germany and the Second World War. Vol. 1: The Build-up of German Aggression. (1991). 799 pp., official German history
• Dutton, David Neville Chamberlain, (2001) ISBN 0-340-70627-9.
• Eubank, Keith. The Origins of World War II (2004), short survey
• Finney, Patrick. The Origins of the Second World War (1998), 480pp
• Goldstein, Erik & Lukes, Igor (editors) The Munich crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II, (1999) ISBN 0-7146-8056-7.
• Hildebrand, Klaus. The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich, (1973).
• Lamb, Margaret and Tarling, Nicholas. From Versailles to Pearl Harbor: The Origins of the Second World War in Europe and Asia. (2001). 238 pp.
• Langer and Gleason
• Lukes, Igor. The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II (1999), 416pp excerpt and text search
• Mallett, Robert. Mussolini and the Origins of the Second World War, 1933 - 1940 (2003) excerpt and text search
• Overy, Richard and Wheatcroft, Andrew. The Road to War. (1990). 364 pp.
• Overy, Richard and Timothy Mason, "Debate: Germany, “Domestic Crisis” and War in 1939" Past and Present, Number 122, February 1989. pages 200-240
• Parker, R. A. C. Chamberlain and Appeasement: British Policy and the Coming of the Second World War. (1993). 388 pp.
• Prazmowska, Anita J. Eastern Europe and the Origins of the Second World War. (2000). 278 pp.
• Ragsdale, Hugh. The Soviets, the Munich Crisis, and the Coming of World War II. (2004). 234 pp.
• Record, Jeffrey. The Specter of Munich: Reconsidering the Lessons of Appeasing Hitler (2006) excerpt and text search
• Salerno, Reynolds Matthewson. Vital Crossroads: Mediterranean Origins of the Second World War, 1935-1940. (2002). 285 pp.
• Strang, G. Bruce On The Fiery March: Mussolini Prepares For War, (2003) ISBN 0-275-97937-7.
• Watt, Donald Cameron How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938-1939, (1989), the mnajor survey ISBN 0-394-57916-X.
• Weinberg, Gerhard. The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany: Starting World War II, 1937-1939, (1980) ISBN 0-226-88511-9.
• Young, Robert France and the Origins of the Second World War, (1996) ISBN 0-312-16185-9.

Pacific

• Barnhart, Michael A. Japan Prepares for Total War: The Search for Economic Security, 1919–1941 (1987)
• Bix, Herbert. Hirohito and the Making of Modern Japan (2000), based on Japanese left-wing interpretations
• Butow, Robert J. C. Tojo and the Coming of the War (1961)
• Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and American Foreign Policy, 1932-1945 (1995).
• Feis, Herbert. The Road to Pearl Harbor: The coming of the war between the United States and Japan. classic history by senior American official.
• Horne, Gerald. Race War! White Supremacy and the Japanese Attack on the British Empire. (2003). 432 pp.
• Kawamura, Noriko. "Emperor Hirohito and Japan's Decision to Go to War with the United States: Reexamined" Diplomatic History (2007) 31 (1), 51–79. online at Blackwell-Synergy]
• Langer and Gleason
• Sun, Youli. China and the Origins of the Pacific War, 1931-1941. (1993). 244 pp.
• Tarling, Nicholas. Britain, Southeast Asia and the Onset of the Pacific War. (1996). 434 pp.
• Thorne, Christopher G. The Issue of War: States, Societies, and the Coming of the Far Eastern Conflict of 1941-1945 (1985) sophisticated analysis of each major power.
• Tohmatsu, Haruo and H. P. Willmott. A Gathering Darkness: The Coming of War to the Far East and the Pacific (2004), short overview.
• Utley, Jonathan G. Going to War with Japan, 1937–1941 (1985)
• Wetzler, Peter. Hirohito and War: Imperial Tradition and Military Decision Making in Prewar Japan (1998), chaps. 2, 3;
• Yomiuri Shimbun. Who Was Responsible? From Marco Polo Bridge to Pearl Harbor (2007)

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